19c - Unification of Italy (Lesson)
Unification of Italy.
You should note: Italy united politically more than militarily.
Problems surrounding Unification:
- Italian patriotism is defined by town NOT country. Hadn't been unified since the fall of the Roman Empire.
- Differences between North and South –
- North more prosperous, Hapsburgs (Austria) control the north and opposed unification.
- Pope's influence is in all of Italy, but directly controls central areas (politically and spiritually).
- Italy lacked a tradition of centralized administration. Town elites ran local governments, and eventually, in the South, would parallel governments which would frustrate attempts to have a centralized state.
- No one could agree on whether Italy would be ruled by a King, constitutional monarchy, republic, or Pope.
BUT – there were a few items that inspired/influenced them: nationalist brochures (from Risorgimento), the memory of the failures of 1848, and hatred of Austria.
With the idea of unification becoming more popular, there seemed to be 2 possible leaders who could accomplish this task:
King of Sardinia.
He wished to unify Italy by extending his control. His region was the most prosperous of all the city-states due to industrial production, sources of water, and accessible markets. Victor Emmanuel wished to take advantage of this and have it thrust him onto the national stage. However, he was poorly educated, without refinements, and preferred hunting to ruling. He did, however, appoint Count Camillo de Cavour as prime minister.
Cavour – attended military school (after his brother was given the family title of Marquis), had a few mishaps, but eventually excelled in math and engineering. He often bragged he could reduce all of the political problems to graphs on which he could plot the possible factors and outcomes. He was very much impressed with Great Britain and France and was elected to the Piedmontese Parliament in 1849. He became minister of commerce and agriculture in 1850 and by 1852, was Prime Minister. It was his policies that strengthened the economy (lowered tariffs, built railroads), made clergy applicable to the civil code, limited bishop's income, and taxed church property.
Extremely Popular Revolutionary
Grew up watching Piedmont patriots being exiled in an early uprising (1820-1821), dressed entirely in black as he was "in mourning" until Italian unification could be achieved. To gain more support, Mazzini began a nationalist movement, which promoted social reforms.
However, he rejected socialism as overly materialistic. Believed unification could educate and uplift the people of Italy and provide a common faith and purpose that would unlock their great potential and make them worthy of a democracy. Believed unification had to be the work of the people themselves rather than the expansion of Piedmont Sardinia.
Created a secret society "Young Italy" which he hoped would mobilize the masses (Italy and the rest of Europe) to rise up for nationalism and democracy.
Did not get along with Cavour, failures in 1848 discredited Mazzini, Cavour informs (1853) Austrian Emperor about a Mazzini planned uprising, and repression followed (Victor Emmanuel congratulated the Austrian Emperor on this move).
In the early 1850s, it appeared as though Italian Unification would be impossible so long as Austria dominated Northern and Central Italy.
Now that Cavour has strengthened Piedmont-Sardinia (henceforth in notes to be referred to as P-S), he turns his attention to diplomacy. He wants the aid of Great Britain & France. His first move is to attempt an alliance with France against Austria, while he also worked on commercial interests between Britain & P-S. He hopes to impress both with P-S.
March 1854 – Crimean War gives him the opportunity. (France & Britain join Ottomans in fighting Russian expansion.)
Cavour takes advantage of the situation to help bolster his position, he strengthens forts that run the border with Austria and promises help in exchange for a role in determining the new frontier in Eastern Europe. The Brits need troops desperately so Cavour sends 15,000 to Crimea in June 1855. Peace of Paris ends the war in 1856, P-S signs the peace and Cavour uses the opportunity to bring up the Italian situation. Through this and a disastrous attempt on behalf of Mazzini's group to invade Naples, Cavour wins over many of Mazzini's followers.
Cavour now becomes even more eager to ally with France (now ruled by Napoleon III) and France wanted to further its claims/influence in Italy.
Marriage was proposed between Victor Emmanuel's 15-year-old daughter and Prince Napoleon Bonaparte (Napoleon III's cousin). (NOTE: Napoleon I's son died in 1832 at the age of 21 – these are family relatives but not a DIRECT link to Napoleon – and keep in mind after Napoleon I's death, Napoleon became an extremely popular name.) The arrangement would cement ties between Italy and France.
France (in 1858) agreed to support Italy in a war against Austria if it could be justified in the eyes of diplomacy and even more so if it could be in the eyes of public opinion in France and the rest of Europe (don't want earlier "mistakes" to reappear). Thus the basic plan was to free Italy from Austria's clutch and divide the spoils – 4 confederated states: P-S, Venetia, Lombardy, and part of the papal states as the Kingdom of Upper Italy, Central Italy w/Prince Napoleon as King, rest of papal lands as 3rd state and Kingdom of 2 Sicilies as the 4th state.
1859 – plan is announced to the Piedmont Parliament and is sealed into Treaty. Princess agrees to marry if "he is not repulsive to me," France begins to negotiate with Russia (currently Austria's ally) who agrees not to interfere so long as France helps revise the Treaty of Paris (which left Russia with no Navy in the Black Sea).
Austrian Complications:
- When Austria announced it would begin drafting men from Venetia and Lombardy into its imperial army, Cavour announces he would accept deserters from the Austrian Army and began to mobilize.
- No one is quite sure what to do. Prussia debates, GB argues for peace, and France asks for demobilization. Austria issues an ultimatum on April 23, 1859 hoping the other Germanic states will back them up (instead, they look like the aggressor).
- P-S refuses, Austria marches, and France mobilizes (1st use of trains in war).
- Italy wins the first major battles, which sparks nationalist uprisings against Austrian-held lands in Central Italy.
- France gets nervous. . . if P-S is too successful they may become rivals instead of the "grateful compliant neighbor" so France signs an armistice with Austria.
- Cavour and Victor Emmanuel feel betrayed (at this point they had only gained Lombardy in battle) Treaty of Turin – March 24, 1860 – Napoleon III agrees to P-S annexation of most of North and Central Italy. The north is now united under P-S.
Southern Italy:
Giuseppe Garibaldi (joined Young Italy in 1833, was in exile in South America for 12 years, fought in 1859) was angered by the French Armistice and formed an army to fight in South Italy. In 1860, a revolt in Sicily breaks out (over bread and mill taxes), the revolt is secretly supported by Cavour, but openly supported by Mazzini. Garibaldi goes to Sicily with an army of "Red Shirts," won power, and announced he was assuming dictatorial power on behalf of Victor Emmanuel.
Garibaldi returned to the Italian Peninsula and took Naples. Cavour sends troops to the Papal States the same day Garibaldi took Naples. (Cavour's goal was to join Garibaldi, but also to lessen his hold on Italy . . .keep Garibaldi from becoming a rival to Victor Emmanuel.)
October saw plebiscites for groups wanting to join P-S (some included Naples, Sicily, and Papal States). Napoleon III is angry. There was supposed to be an international conference to provide arbitration in regards to Italian Unification, now only Venetia and Rome are not part of P-S.
March 1861, Victor Emmanuel is crowned king of Italy. Garibaldi moves back into seclusion at his home on a small island. Cavour dies suddenly on June 6 at the age of 51.
In 1866, Austria and Prussia go to war. Italian army allies with Prussia and then takes over Austrian Venetia.
1870 saw the beginnings of the Franco-Prussian War and the departure of France from Rome. Rome votes 40,000 to 46 to become part of Italy. 1871 – Law of Papal Guarantees reduced the holdings of the Pope to Vatican City (which is basically the land holding the buildings that surround St. Peters).
Though united politically, Italy still struggled socially, economically, and culturally.
In your notes, respond to the following.
-
- Describe Cavour as a conservative nationalist. Describe Mazzini as a liberal nationalist. Compare and contrast the two. How were their aims similar and how did they differ? Provide one direct quote from each that illustrates your answer.
- Discuss the social, political, cultural, and economic differences between northern and southern Italy.
[CC BY 4.0] UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED | IMAGES: LICENSED AND USED ACCORDING TO TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION