SPP - The Scientific Revolution, con't (Lesson)

The Scientific Revolution

Changes in Medicine

Four Humors

The Four humors are the four "fluids" in the human body- blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm.

It was widely believed that the four humors not only determined what ailed you but also your personality. The unique mix of humors within your body determined what type of person you were - end up with too much or too little of one of those humors? It could throw off your health requiring you to attempt to regain that balance, hence the process of "bloodletting." This theory was espoused by Galen who believed that blood had to be constantly replenished and that sometimes the liver might produce too much blood.

Galen

Though his influence was far less than that of Aristotle and Ptolemy, Galen's medical and anatomical theories dominated the scientific world for years even though they were proved wrong by dissections. Galen advocated that the heart was actually where the stomach is located and vice versa, believing that the stomach pumped blood through the body. Galen was also a proponent for the Four Humors - an imbalance of which was the cause of most ailments.

Other forms of medicine included Sympathetic and Antipathy:

• Sympathetic Medicine is where a physician would treat the cause of the wound with something sympathetic to the injured party rather than treat the wound itself. So if you were stabbed, the doctor would treat the sword, rather than treat you. Surprisingly - this actually worked!
• The idea behind Antipathy was to treat with opposites. For example - it was believed all colds were caused by the planet Saturn. So to treat the cold, you must then get closer to Saturn's opposite - the Sun. How does one do this? It goes back to the idea of Astronomy and the alignment of the planets.

Doctors did not dissect bodies in medical school and often had no "real world" experience when they began practicing. Much of the medical knowledge throughout the Middle Ages and into the 1600s was based on Galen's theories. Also, doctors tended to be centered in cities - too far and too expensive for most to see, which might have been a blessing in disguise as a good number of patients died as a result of doctor care and unsanitary conditions. (Germ theory and sterilization did not yet exist!)

So where did most people go for care? Many went to the local "Cunning Folk" in the village. This person may be best termed now as an "alternative healer," but was the source of low magic at the time. These Cunning Folk would diagnose the issue and offer cures, be they herbs or simple "spells." They often had a greater success rate than the physicians and while we might consider these people to be performing magic or be considered "witch doctors," they were widely untouched during the witchcraft craze in the 1600s.

Consider this: Why would those who are publicly performing "spells" and "magic" not be accused during the craze? Simple - they were too valuable to society. If they were to be accused, who would the people turn to when ill? What gain would there be to accusing one of the "Cunning Folk?" A good number of accusations occurred because the accuser had something to gain from the denouncement of the accused witch. With the Cunning Folk, many saw that they only had something to lose if an accusation was made.

The Structure of the Human Body

Andreas Vesalius was a Flemish anatomist who challenged and eventually overturned Galen's medical supremacy. Vesalius dissected human bodies and carefully recorded his findings. The sketches and information uncovered during these dissections lead to the publication of his work On Structure of the Human Body. Vesalius also hosted public dissections, though dissections at this time were still illegal.

Side Note: Dissections were not allowed which is one reason why physicians did not have real life experience when entering their practice and why there was such a major misunderstanding of basic human anatomy. Dissections were generally frowned upon up until the 20th century. Medical schools were known to have "grave robbers" on the payroll - these people would steal corpses from local graveyards in order for the students to practice in secret.

William Harvey was an English physician who was the first known physician to completely describe the circulatory system. He published a book, Exercitatio Anatomica de Modu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus, which described the action of the heart and the movement of blood throughout the body. He even explained how impeding the flow of blood would have negative results by tying tourniquets around arms and checking for blood flow through the temperature of the extremity and the pulse. They found the arm got colder because the blood couldn’t return to the heart. This information was in direct conflict with the theories of Galen. His theory was not immediately accepted but would become standard several decades later.

 

I Think, Therefore I am

Philosophers of the time, such as Bacon and Descartes, explored the differences between inductive and deductive reasoning. They also promoted experimentation and mathematics. These activities helped lead to the scientific method which is still used today.

 

Francis Bacon

British politician and writer, Francis Bacon, argued that knowledge had to be pursued through empirical and experimental research, not by religion. He believed facts would speak for themselves, that general principles would emerge and thus knowledge would increase. He also worked to justify patronage, arguing that scientific discoveries brought greater control over the physical environment, therefore making people rich, and nations powerful. Though a major advocate of experimentation, it must be noted that he himself carried out few experiments and made no significant discoveries.

 

Rene Descartes

Primarily a mathematician, Descartes believed there was perfect correspondence between geometry and algebra. He determined geometric figures could be expressed algebraically. As such, Descartes is the father of analytical geometry and the creator of the Cartesian Plane. Perhaps he is best known for the saying "Cogito, ergo sum' ("I think therefore I am"), Descartes scorned traditional science and learning in favor of deductive reasoning.

He followed Francis Bacon and Galileo in criticizing traditional methods and beliefs, but unlike Bacon, who argued for an inductive method based on observed facts, Descartes made mathematics the model for all science, applying its deductive and analytical methods to all fields. His 1637 work, Discourse on Method was a rejection of "handed down" material learning. Instead, Descartes explained one must begin with a blank slate in order to understand the world. Each problem is separated, moving from the simplest idea to the most difficult in order to solve it. He divided the world into 2 parts: Mind and Matter. Descartes agreed with earlier ideas of God as a clockmaker but felt once everything was in motion, God stepped back and let everything run its course.

 

 

Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning

Both reasoning methods represent two distinct ways of understanding the world and using logic. Inductive reasoning mandates that you begin with observation, then, using those observations, design a general rule or principle that explains the facts. Deductive reasoning, on the other hand, maintains that you begin with basic truths which you then use in order to work towards a valid conclusion.

Bacon, with his emphasis on experimentation, advocated Inductive reasoning whereas Descartes, the more analytical of the two, upheld the merits of Deductive reasoning.

The scientific method was actually a combination of these two theories of knowledge: Empiricism (a.k.a. induction) advocated by Bacon and supported going from particular knowledge (observation) to general knowledge. Rationalism (a.k.a. deduction) was advocated by Descartes who stated that senses can lie and that the only way to find truth was to start from one fact, which was "I am doubting" and proceed to deduce all other statements – "I think, therefore I am." Descartes also stated that there was an essential divide between the world of thought and reality (tangible objects). In other words, he took Bacon's statement that religion (faith) and science (fact) should be separate and turned it into a far-reaching divide between the reality of the world and our perception of it.

Watch this brief Khan Academy video to see an explanation of both concepts in a real-world problem that will help clarify the difference between the two.

 

 

The Effects of the Scientific Revolution

People felt that human understanding of the universe could be reduced to mathematical laws, thus the universe no longer appeared to be a mystery. Instead, many felt that it was orderly, rational, and, most importantly, could be understood by humans. In turn, this led people to believe that humans were able to control their own destiny.

The concept of natural laws developed. These laws, which were similar to the laws found in science by Newton, could govern other aspects of life as well, such as economics, politics, or ethics. Science gained wider appeal and unprecedented popularity. Additionally, science was institutionalized, and scientific societies sprung up throughout Europe, on both the national and local levels. These institutions greatly helped the rate of progress.

Positive effects:

• Gaining of knowledge
• Increase in literacy for women as many scientific books are marketed toward them
• Greater toleration (both religious and scientific)
• Less superstition and more scientific answers
• Freedom to deviate from established theories, which opened the door for new, further developments

Negative effects:

• Loss of innocence
• Loss of traditional faith
• Loss of faith in heaven
• Earth is no longer regarded as the center (thus man's importance is questioned)
• Skepticism
• Loss of personal/caring God

Overall, however, this was an era of optimism that gave way to an Age of Reason in the 18th century. People living during the Scientific Revolution felt that they had surpassed even the ancients and were at the peak of human knowledge, and ideas of progress dominated intellectual discussions.

 

 

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In your notes, respond to the following.

• How did the periods preceding this (Renaissance, Exploration, and Reformation) contribute to and pave the way for the Scientific Revolution?
• In a few words list what each of the following scientists are known for: Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, Galen, Vesalius, Harvey, Bacon, and Descartes.

 

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