SPP - The Scientific Revolution (Lesson)

The Scientific Revolution

Life Before the Scientific Revolution

Europe before the Scientific Revolution was much different than Europe after. In order to understand the drastic changes presented in the Scientific Revolution, we must first take a look at science up until that point - much of which was based on magic and superstition.

First, two terms you should know:

• Occult meant what was hidden or not easily seen, and did not have the "dark" connotation that it has now.
• Magic/Magi for the Persians, and then others, it represented universal wisdom.

Why is this important? We need to understand that magic was not seen then the way it is seen now. Magic was a looser term that referred to a holding of knowledge, not the typical performing of tricks or witchcraft vision it is associated with now. Once we look at Magic as having "universal wisdom," we can see how it can be tied to early forms of science.

Astrology

Another area that grew in popularity was astrology.  The Church believed events occurred due to God's will, while astrologers credited it to the path of the stars. Soon, Astrologers began looking into delicate church matters (such as nativities for Christ). Nativities seemed to take away free will – you will follow the path the stars have set out for you, whereas the Church wanted to retain free will so as to give you the ability to choose a correct path or gain redemption for your previous sins. Astrologers respond noting that in fact the path is not absolute (if you pray to god you can overturn it), but the Church worries about the potential for chaos (people are unrepentant because it was "in the stars").

By the 16th & 17th centuries, people begin going to Astrologers for what they had originally gone to church for. 

Alchemy

Alchemy was developed after years of experimentation with chemicals. While Alchemy may appear to be similar to or a forerunner of Chemistry, in fact, chemical theories have nothing to do with Alchemical theories. It does, however, give way to future techniques of Chemistry.

Alchemy originated in Ancient China and the Chinese assumed all the West knew of alchemy. Yet, there is no mention of it in ancient texts. It is not until 1144 and the translation of the Arabic Book of the Composition of Alchemy, that the practice became widespread within Europe.

As a practice, Alchemy is interested in elements, in particular mixing elements together to create something else. In the East (Asia), the goal was to create eternal life, in the West (Europe), the goal was to create gold. Regardless of what was to be obtained, in order to create it, the Alchemist needed the correct materials - typically considered to be: mercury, sulfur, salt, and gold, mixed with a philosopher's stone (elixir vitae). The philosopher's stone was seen as being from the origins of life – prima material and thus the key ingredient necessary for success.

At its heart, Alchemy was a very rigid practice with a definitive process.

 

Considering themselves "noble" scientists, Alchemists followed this path:

1. Say prayers and invoke God prior to experimenting
2. Contemplate nature
3. Create preparations (start mixing)
4. Way of using (when successful and what you do with it)
5. The use and the profit (profit is strictly forbidden)

Paracelsus

Paracelsus is perhaps the most famous of the alchemists. Having a bit of an ego, he adopted the name "Paracelsus" to represent how far he had surpassed the well-known Ancient Greek alchemist - Celsius. The name literally translates to "Above Celsius."

Paracelsus used "drugs" to cure ailments, and believed alchemy was created by Adam, having found biblical support to substantiate this. He redefined a world in which everything leads to him and determined sulfur, mercury, and salt are the three elements that make up all things. He often used mercury to cure illnesses to great success, however many of his patients ultimately died of mercury poisoning.

 

 

Reasons for Scientific Revolution

So why does it happen now? One reason was that scientists were simply beginning to take note of the inadequacies of the standard theories, and, although they greatly preferred to make slight changes to the theories (vs. abandoning them) some scientists were beginning to question the old authorities. Still, it is unlikely that the scientists would have challenged the established theories without the influence of the other ancient scientists, especially Archimedes (who, along with many others, was rediscovered during the Renaissance due to the humanists' efforts to find ancient works), that disagreed with the old theories. The Reformation had proven that established ideals could be questioned in order to find new truths. Another influence was the interest in alchemy and astrology, which were linked by the belief that the world could be understood through several secret truths (like Neoplatonism). These sciences contributed to the outpouring of new ideas, the questioning of old theories, and the use of math. Lastly, the European interest in technology both stimulated and made possible the Scientific Revolution. New instruments and devices, often made for other purposes, were used in science and made possible many of the new discoveries. The interest in technology was actually stimulated by the competition between the different nations because applied technology could be used in warfare.

 

Theories of the Universe

Astronomy

Initially, there was no distinction between Astrology and Astronomy. Astrology was considered the more "legitimate" science and thought more highly of by the upper classes. Most early astronomers were also astrologers - if a person chose to study the stars in an effort to understand the universe, rather than to understand human nature, they had to do it in secret. This all starts to change as new ideas and methods led different individuals to question the information of those who had come before and to develop different theories about the universe. These individuals include Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton.

Copernicus - Copernicus was a Polish priest and astronomer who challenged Ptolemy's geocentric system primarily because it was too complex and he felt that there had to be a mathematically better system. He theorized that if the sun was the center of the universe and the Earth was just another planet in orbit, elaborate explanations would not be necessary to explain inconsistencies. In 1543 he wrote On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (which was not published until the year of his death as he feared the Church's reaction). Although Copernicus had made progress he was never completely satisfied with his theory knowing that he had really only opened up more questions than he had answered. Copernicus had, however, opened the door for others to follow with new calculations and theories.

Tycho Brahe - Brahe was backed by the king of Denmark and thus was able to set up an elaborate observatory. Telescopes had not yet been invented. His observatory was for monitoring the skies by the human eye and noting what had been observed. Brahe was known for being quick tempered and quite arrogant, but he was also a deeply devout Catholic and often attempted to justify his findings with church dogma. Determined to reconcile his religious beliefs with his scientific observations, he posited a dual system with all the celestial bodies (except Earth) being heliocentric, and that entire mass circling the earth. Brahe was an astonishing observer, but not a strong mathematician. For 20 years he observed the night skies and kept close records of those observations. Unfortunately he was unable to mathematically deduce what it all meant.

Johannes Kepler - Kepler was the son of a minor German noble, he had been trained to be a Lutheran minister. Yet, he always felt as though the universe was built on mathematical relationships. He transitioned into Astronomy while in school and eventually became Brahe's assistant. The two, however, highly disliked one another, with Brahe keeping the majority of the data locked away from Kepler. Upon Brahe's death, Kepler spent 20 years interpreting the data, leading to the establishment of his 3 laws of planetary motion.

Kepler's 3 laws:

1. 1609 - the orbits of the planets are ellipses (ovals)
2. Planets don't move at a uniform speed in their orbits
3. 1619 - the time a planet takes to make its orbit is precisely related to its distance from the sun. Kepler noted that the closer an object was to the sun, the faster it moved through its orbit, the further away it was, the slower it moved. His reasonings are explained by the theory of gravity, though gravity had not yet been discovered.

Galileo - Galileo Galilei was a poor Florentine nobleman who had initially considered a religious career. But by the age of 25, he became interested in mathematics and opted to become a professor instead. This led to an interest in science, in particular in scientific discovery as he completed experiments to determine outcomes rather than simply speculated. At the time, the majority of scientists guessed at outcomes, making predictions rather than actually testing what might happen. Galileo is one of the first to base his arguments on experimentation rather than theory.

Galileo formulated the Law of Inertia (an object continues in motion forever unless stopped by some external force), shattering Aristotelian physics. Upon hearing of the first telescope in Holland, Galileo made a version for himself and began observing Jupiter. Often Galileo is incorrectly credited with creating the first telescope. While the actual inventor is unknown, most consider Hans Lippershey to be the inventor as he is the first to apply for a patent. While Galileo did not create it, he did perfect it and was the first to use it for astronomy, leading to the misconception. With the assistance of the telescope, Galileo could see further than before allowing him to discover 4 moons of Jupiter - Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto.

He was also able to prove the Copernican theory that celestial bodies did not move on crystalline spheres. He was under the employ of the Medici of Tuscany which explains his decision to name the moons Cosmica Sidera, Cosimo's Stars. (Their names were later changed when, at the time Galileo made his discovery, another scientist, Simon Marius, independently discovered them as well. Kepler suggested the names, which Marius published in his book in 1614. Incidentally, Marius is one of the few scientists who argued in favor of Brahe's universal theory.) Galileo's Starry Messenger, in which he published his findings on Jupiter and the Earth's moons as well as defended Copernican theory, drew the ire of the theologians.

Pope Urban VII, a personal friend of the scientist, allowed Galileo to continue his work and publications despite religious objections, provided he made no judgment in regard to the Aristotelian vs. Copernican system.

Eight years later, Galileo published Two Chief Systems of the World. This work takes shape as a conversation between 2 men, one a believer in the Aristotelian worldview, the other, a supporter of Copernicus. Within the work, Galileo openly defends Copernicus and repudiates the Aristotelian worldview to the point of openly mocking it and its supporters. As a result, Galileo goes on trial for heresy.

Faced with torture unless he admits his view is incorrect, Galileo recants, becoming a symbol for the struggle between religion and science.

Sentenced to house arrest, Galileo was still allowed to conduct experiments from the confines of his home until his death. Galileo had been unable to leave his home for any reason. It is said he went blind because he was not allowed to leave to see a doctor when he began having trouble with his eyes. It is also said that when he made his declaration to the Inquisitorial board, underneath his breath he muttered "but it still moves." This is a reference to the Copernican model of a movable universe rather than the fixed one of Aristotelian theory. Basically, Galileo is stating that while he recanted to save himself, ultimately he still believes.

Isaac Newton - Newton studied the spectrum of the new sciences and mathematical disciplines including optics, physics, astronomy, and mathematics. His work, Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (Principia), is considered the most important work ever written in the field of science and mathematics. Among the accomplishments of Newton were: the defining of motion by formulating the concept of force and the laws of motion, understanding the composition of light, developing calculus, building the first reflective telescope, and defining the law of gravity.

 

 

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