The Mongols: Effects of the Mongol Empire

Many civilizations you learned about in Eurasia in the previous Unit (The Global Tapestry) were conquered by the Mongols. They took over many weakening states and set up their own empires, or Khanates. They politically transformed much of Eurasia by destroying established empires and replacing them with their own.

The Four Khanates of the Mongol Empire (13th-14th Centuries CE)

The map below shows the four Khanates of the Mongol Empire, along with several major cities, both in the Khanates and outside of them. Select the icon to see additional information about each spot.

Mongol Khanates

These Mongol empires, called Khanates, were divided between the grandsons of Genghis Khan. Here is a summary of the most important examples.

China

The Mongols defeated China’s Song dynasty in the year 1279 and set up direct rule over it. Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, founded the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), making this the first time China was completely ruled by a foreign power. The Mongols reorganized the government and placed Mongols and foreigners in top positions, while the Chinese were limited to lower offices—creating widespread resentment.

Under Mongol rule, trade and cultural exchange expanded. The Silk Road flourished under their protection, allowing goods, technologies, and ideas to move safely between China, the Middle East, and Europe. Copying the Song Dynasty, they issued paper currency to facilitate transactions. Gunpowder, paper, and printing spread westward. Foreign visitors such as Marco Polo traveled to China during this time, bringing back reports that fascinated Europeans. The Mongols also encouraged the use of postal relay stations (yam system) to improve communication across their vast empire.

Over time, resentment against the Mongols grew, and they were finally overthrown in 1368 by the Ming Dynasty, which restored Chinese rule.

Russia

Unlike China, the Mongol assault on Russia was devastating. Its capital, Kiev, was leveled to the ground and its population decimated. And rather than ruling it directly, as in China, the Mongols established Russia as a tributary state. Mongols’ indirect rule over Russia is often called the “Golden Horde.” They let local princes govern as long as they paid heavy tribute and remained loyal. Because the princes in Moscow were the most loyal in collecting and paying tribute, Mongols favored them—an act that increased Moscow’s importance in Russian civilization. The Russian church moved its focus to Moscow as well.

Some historians argue that Mongol domination delayed Russia’s development by isolating it from the cultural and scientific advancements of Western Europe. But economic pressures eventually led Russia to push back. Even though the Mongols connected Russia to wider trade routes across Asia, the taxes and tribute they demanded became a heavy economic burden and caused widespread discontent. The princes of Moscow, who once faithfully collected taxes and tribute for the Mongols, began the revolt that eventually broke Mongol control and laid the foundations for the Russian Empire.

The Dar al-Islam

The Mongol Empire had a major impact on Islamic civilization that would leave a long-lasting impact. As you learned in the previous unit, the Mongols attacked and destroyed Baghdad in 1258, the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. Unified Islamic civilization was over, and Islam emerged in the form of multiple, smaller caliphates, many of which were Turkic.

Despite destroying the House of Wisdom in 1258, the Mongols eventually encouraged trade, intellectual, and cultural contact across Eurasia. The Pax Mongolica—or peace of the Mongols—allowed Muslim merchants, scholars, and travelers to move more freely, spreading Islamic culture, science, and ideas along the Silk Road. Eventually, many Mongols converted to Islam—especially in the Ilkhanate—blending their traditions with Islamic civilization. This conversion helped reestablish political stability in Persia and Central Asia under later Muslim dynasties.

Reflection: The Mongol Empire

Although their time was brief, the Mongols had a tremendous impact. They transformed the political map of Eurasia in the 13^th century and impacted the development of states in China, Russia, and Islam.

After completing this lesson, you should know how the Mongols overcame tribal loyalties to unite the world’s largest empire, how they facilitated the transfer of scientific knowledge and technologies, and how they impacted the development of civilizations across Eurasia.

At this point in the course, you should be able to compare their impact with other significant states such as China and the Dar al-Islam.

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