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AP Environmental Science Legislation

There are many, many laws and treaties and other pieces of legislation that could relate to environmental science. The College Board has narrowed these laws down to the 10 most important laws, which are shown below:

Clean Air Act (CAA)💨 (click to reveal)

What year was this first passed?

1963

What is the point of this legislation?

- - - - establishes the basic structure for regulating air pollution and improving air quality in the United States
      - sets limits for criteria pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, ozone, particulate matter, and lead, that are harmful to human health and the environment
      - regulates the emissions of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, that contribute to global warming and climate change

Has it been amended? If so, when?

1970

1977

1990

What agency is responsible for enforcing this?

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

What are some examples of this in practice?

- - - - National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS): The EPA sets and enforces these standards to protect public health and the environment from the adverse effects of air pollution.
      - State Implementation Plans (SIPs): States develop these plans to ensure that national air quality standards are met within their jurisdictions.
      - New Source Performance Standards (NSPS): These standards are designed to regulate emissions from new, modified, and reconstructed stationary sources, such as power plants and factories.
      - National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs): The EPA regulates hazardous air pollutants that are known to cause cancer or other serious health impacts.
      - Vehicle Emissions Regulations: The CAA also regulates emissions from mobile sources like cars and trucks. A landmark case, Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency, led to the Supreme Court ruling that the EPA has the authority to regulate greenhouse gases from vehicles.
      - Acid Rain Program: This program aims to reduce sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NO_x), the primary causes of acid rain, by setting emissions limits and allowing trading of emission credits.
      - Ozone Layer Protection: The CAA includes provisions to phase out the production and use of substances that deplete the ozone layer, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

Clean Water Act (CWA) 💧 (click to reveal)

What year was this first passed?

1972

What is the point of this legislation?

Has it been amended? If so, when?

1981

1987

1990

What agency is responsible for enforcing this?

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

What are some examples of this in practice?

- - - - Cuyahoga River: Once one of the most polluted rivers in the United States, the Cuyahoga River in Ohio caught fire multiple times due to pollution. After the CWA, the river has seen significant improvements thanks to sewage treatment plant grants and stricter permitting systems. Today, it supports over 70 species of fish and has been designated as an Ohio Scenic River.
      - Monterey Bay: Known for its diverse wildlife, Monterey Bay in California faced severe environmental health hazards. The CWA led to the formation of Monterey One Water, which improved wastewater standards and helped conserve land to prevent runoff into the bay’s tributaries. The bay’s improved condition has boosted tourism and the local economy.
      - Potomac River: Before the CWA, the Potomac River was severely polluted with waste. The Act’s limits on sewage and pollutants, along with regional cooperative efforts, have greatly improved the river’s water quality.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) 🐘 (click to reveal)

What year was this first passed?

1973

What is the point of this legislation?

- - - - an international treaty
      - aims to protect endangered and threatened species of animals and plants from overexploitation and illegal trade
      - regulates the international trade of wildlife and wildlife products, such as ivory, fur, and timber, by requiring permits and certificates
      - promotes the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystem services

Has it been amended? If so, when?

1979

1983

listed species can be updated at Conference meetings which are held every 2-3 years

What agency is responsible for enforcing this?

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services (USFWS)

What are some examples of this in practice?

- - - - Regulation of Ivory Trade: CITES has played a crucial role in regulating the international trade of ivory to protect elephants. The ban on international ivory trade was enacted in 1989 under CITES Appendix I, which lists species that are the most endangered among CITES-listed animals and plants.
      - Protection of Rhinoceros: Rhinos are protected under CITES by controlling and monitoring the trade in rhino horns, which are highly sought after for their supposed medicinal properties and as status symbols.
      - Conservation of Marine Species: CITES has been used to regulate the trade of various marine species such as sharks and manta rays to ensure that their trade does not threaten their survival in the wild.
      - Restrictions on Timber Trade: Certain species of trees that are threatened by over-exploitation, such as rosewood and mahogany, are listed in CITES Appendices, which control their international trade.
      - Wildlife Trafficking: CITES provides a legal framework for the prevention of illegal wildlife trafficking and has facilitated international cooperation in enforcement efforts against wildlife crime.

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) 🛢 (click to reveal)

What year was this first passed?

1980

What is the point of this legislation?

- - - - also known as Superfund
      - authorizes the cleanup of hazardous waste sites that pose a threat to human health or the environment
      - establishes liability for the parties responsible for the contamination
      - provides funding for the cleanup and restoration of contaminated sites
      - applies to mining sites, industrial sites, landfills, and other sources of hazardous substances

Has it been amended? If so, when?

1986

2002

What agency is responsible for enforcing this?

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

What are some examples of this in practice?

- - - - Cape Cod: The cleanup efforts in Cape Cod have addressed contamination issues, leading to the restoration of safe, usable land.
      - Hudson River: CERCLA has been instrumental in the ongoing efforts to remove PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) from the Hudson River, improving water quality and ecosystem health.
      - Savannah River: Cleanup activities along the Savannah River have helped reduce environmental and health risks associated with previous industrial activities.
      - Philadelphia Navy Yard: The Navy Yard’s transformation from a contaminated site to a thriving commercial area is a testament to CERCLA’s effectiveness.
      - Rocky Mountain Arsenal: Once a chemical weapons manufacturing site, it has been cleaned up under CERCLA and is now a national wildlife refuge.
      - Bunker Hill: Located in Idaho, the Bunker Hill site has seen significant remediation efforts to address heavy metal pollution.
      - Eureka Mills: This site in Utah has undergone cleanup to address lead contamination from historical milling operations.
      - Elysian Park: Efforts here have focused on addressing contamination to make the area safe for public use.

Delaney Clause of Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act 🚫 (click to reveal)

What year was this first passed?

1958

What is the point of this legislation?

- - - - a provision of the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
      - prohibits the use of any food additive that is found to cause cancer in humans or animals
      - applies to any substance that is intentionally added to food or that may become a component of food as a result of processing, packaging, or storage
      - requires the testing and approval of food additives by the Food and Drug Administration

Has it been amended? If so, when?

1996

What agency is responsible for enforcing this?

U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

What are some examples of this in practice?

- - - - Safrole in Root Beer: Safrole, which occurs naturally in sassafras tea and spices, is permissible under the Delaney Clause. However, it is illegal and banned as an additive to natural root beer because it has been proven a carcinogen in animal tests.
      - Pesticides in Processed Foods: The Delaney Clause applied to pesticides in processed foods but only when the concentration of a residue of a cancer-causing pesticide increased during processing. For example, if more of a pesticide was present in ketchup than in the raw tomatoes used to make it, the clause would be invoked.

Endangered Species Act 🐼 (click to reveal)

What year was this first passed?

1973

What is the point of this legislation?

- - - - provides a program for the conservation of endangered and threatened species of fish, wildlife, and plants and the habitats in which they are found
      - prohibits the taking, harming, or killing of listed species
      - requires the designation and protection of critical habitats
      - requires the development and implementation of recovery plans for listed species and the cooperation and consultation among federal, state, and local agencies and stakeholders

Has it been amended? If so, when?

1978

1982

1988

2020 - promoted

2023 - regulatory revisions

What agency is responsible for enforcing this?

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) - terrestrial/freshwater species

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) - marine species

What are some examples of this in practice?

- - - - Bald Eagle: Once on the brink of extinction due to hunting, habitat destruction, and the use of the pesticide DDT, the bald eagle has made a remarkable recovery. Thanks to the ESA’s protections, including habitat conservation and a ban on DDT, the bald eagle was removed from the endangered species list in 2007.
      - American Alligator: The American alligator was listed as endangered in the 1960s due to unregulated hunting and loss of habitat. Conservation efforts under the ESA, including regulated hunting and habitat protection, have led to its recovery, and it was delisted in 1987.
      - Gray Wolf: The gray wolf was nearly eradicated from the lower 48 states by the mid-20th century. The ESA provided legal protection for the species, leading to the reintroduction of wolves into suitable habitats and a gradual increase in their populations. While their status remains controversial and varies by region, the gray wolf has seen significant recovery in some areas.

Kyoto Protocol 🌎 (click to reveal)

What year was this first passed?

adopted in 1997 and enforcement began in 2005

What is the point of this legislation?

- - - - an international treaty
      - aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change
      - sets binding targets for developed countries to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and other greenhouse gases, by an average of 5% below 1990 levels by 2012
      - establishes mechanisms for cooperation and assistance among countries, such as emissions trading, joint implementation, and the clean development mechanism.

Has it been amended? If so, when?

2012

What agency is responsible for enforcing this?

UN Climate Change Secretariat and the enforcement branch of the Compliance Committee of the Kyoto Protocol.

What are some examples of this in practice?

- - - - Emission Reductions: Countries committed to reducing emissions of six greenhouse gases to 5.2 percent below 1990 levels during the commitment period 2008–2012.
      - Use of Sinks: Some countries have used natural processes, known as “sinks,” that remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere. An example is the planting of trees, which absorb carbon dioxide.
      - Restrictions on Polluters: Most ratifying nations placed restrictions on their biggest polluters to meet their targets.
      - Transportation Management: Managing transportation to slow or reduce emissions from automobiles was another strategy adopted by countries to comply with the Kyoto Protocol.
      - Renewable Energy: Many countries made better use of renewable energy sources—such as solar power, wind power, and biodiesel—in place of fossil fuels to meet their Kyoto targets.

Montreal Protocol 🕶 (click to reveal)

What year was this first passed?

passed in 1987, went into effect in 1989

What is the point of this legislation?

- - - - an international treaty
      - aims to protect the ozone layer and prevent harmful ultraviolet radiation from reaching the earth
      - regulates the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and methyl bromide, by phasing them out gradually
      - promotes the development and use of alternative substances and technologies that are safer for the ozone layer and the climate

Has it been amended? If so, when?

1990

1992

1997

1999

2016

What agency is responsible for enforcing this?

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Ozone Secretariat

What are some examples of this in practice?

- - - - Phasing Out Ozone-Depleting Substances: The protocol has successfully phased out 99% of the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS), including chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), carbon tetrachloride, and halons.
      - Reduction in Skin Cancer and Cataracts: By reducing harmful ultraviolet radiation that reaches Earth’s surface, the Montreal Protocol has helped prevent millions of cases of skin cancer and eye cataracts.
      - Climate Change Mitigation: The protocol has also contributed to climate change mitigation by reducing the use of chemicals that were not only thinning the ozone layer but also warming the planet. The Kigali Amendment, in particular, targeted hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), potent greenhouse gases, to avoid additional global warming.
      - Regulation of Consumer Products: The treaty regulates nearly 100 man-made chemicals referred to as ODS, such as those used in aerosol spray cans or as refrigerants. This has led to changes in consumer products and industrial practices.

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) ♻️ (click to reveal)

What year was this first passed?

1976

What is the point of this legislation?

- - - - provides the framework for the management of solid and hazardous waste in the United States
      - regulates the generation, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal of waste
      - sets standards for waste facilities and operators
      - promotes the reduction, reuse, and recycling of waste and the conservation and recovery of resources

Has it been amended? If so, when?

1984

1992

1996

What agency is responsible for enforcing this?

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

What are some examples of this in practice?

- - - - Hazardous Waste Management: RCRA regulates the generation, transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste. This includes setting standards for hazardous waste generators and facilities that treat, store, or dispose of hazardous waste.
      - Solid Waste Management: RCRA provides a framework for managing non-hazardous solid wastes, promoting resource conservation through recycling and recovery, and ensuring environmentally sound waste disposal.
      - Underground Storage Tanks (USTs): RCRA’s UST program regulates underground tanks storing petroleum and other hazardous substances to prevent leaks and ensure safe containment.
      - Corrective Action: Facilities that handle hazardous waste are required to clean up any environmental contamination for which they are responsible. This includes remediation of soil and groundwater contamination.
      - Financial Assurance: RCRA requires facilities to demonstrate financial capability to cover the costs of managing hazardous waste, including closure, post-closure care, and corrective action for releases.

Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) 🚰 (click to reveal)

What year was this first passed?

1974

What is the point of this legislation?

- - - - protects the quality and safety of drinking water sources, such as groundwater and surface water
      - sets standards for the treatment and monitoring of public water systems
      - regulates the underground injection of fluids that may contaminate drinking water
      - establishes programs to protect groundwater and source water from pollution

Has it been amended? If so, when?

1986

1996

What agency is responsible for enforcing this?

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

What are some examples of this in practice?

- - - - Regulation of Contaminants: The EPA has established protective drinking water standards for more than 90 contaminants, ensuring that the majority of the population receives water that meets health-based standards.
      - Source Water Protection Practices: Actions have been taken to prevent contamination of surface and groundwater sources, such as land use controls, regulations, permits, inspections, and public education and outreach.
      - National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES): This system sets effluent limits on discharges of pollutants that are regulated as drinking water contaminants under the SDWA.
      - Water Quality Standards (WQS): Establish WQS with criteria for regulated drinking water contaminants for waters designated for drinking water supply.

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