IUIF - Closing Of the Frontier (Lesson)

Closing of the Frontier

The Black Hills: The remaining land the Plains Indians were promised but ultimately removed from as western expansion and greed took over.

The Transcontinental Railroad

The development of the railroads and the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad facilitated the seemingly endless settlement of the west by Americans. Two main groups were tasked with the construction of the first Transcontinental Railroad. The Central Pacific built rails east from California while the Union Pacific built rails west from Nebraska. Together these companies met at Promontory Point, Utah to connect the first Transcontinental Railroad.

The completion of the railroad was an amazing feat. The construction of the railroad was financed with government funds and the sale of lands along the route. Thousands of laborers from various countries emigrated and found work along the line. The workers faced long hours and dangerous work. Not only was the work hard, but they were also exposed to natural elements and dangers. European workers were paid more than their Chinese counterparts and faced far less dangers and discrimination. These workers opened the west to further expansion and discovery.

Westward Expansion

Railroads facilitated the settlement of the west; but as those people transformed the west and produced goods and crops, railroads shipped the cargo east to domestic and international markets. Farmers and ranchers utilized the vast acreage to produce ever-increasing crops and in so doing created new economic opportunities for merchants and shippers back east. Chicago became a central location for butchering meat for eastern cities because of its status as a railroad hub for the Midwest and thanks to the cowboy.

Because of the “open range” of the west, these rugged, relentless cowboys were needed to control large herds of cattle. The most famous type of cattle was the Texas Longhorn, a sturdy cattle of Spanish ancestry that could withstand the long journey from Mexico and Texas to the rail lines of the upper Midwest. From there the cattle were shipped via rail to be butchered for consumption and further shipment. The period of the cowboy has become an infamous era in American history; however the era was short lived due to one small invention.

Joseph Glidden crudely constructed a coil of wire with barbs intertwined. The barbs were needed to prevent cattle from breaking through the wire. Glidden’s invention was effective; but perhaps more important was far less expensive than normal fence posts and boards. The cattle could be contained and controlled because of the inexpensive and effective barbed wire.

The Plains Wars

Although the innovation of the barbed wire contained cattle, it also hindered the movement of the tribes of the Midwest plains. Likewise, the introduction of more effective agricultural machinery and techniques encouraged more settlement in the area. Both of these inventions combined to limit the Plains tribes’ movement, increase white settlement and expanded conflict between those two groups.

The United States government worked with Native American tribes as white settlers continued to encroach on tribal lands at will. The Treaty of Fort Laramie was one attempt at negotiations of lands and relationships with Plains Indians. The agreement promised to give lands to Plains Indians in the Black Hills region of modern-day North and South Dakota. In exchange the Plains Indians agreed not to attack settlers in the region. The attacks however were largely prompted by settlers utilizing Native lands to travel and settle, ignoring the treaty and continuing the conflict. The American government’s attempts at peace negotiations were short lived though. Once gold was discovered in the Black Hills, settlers rushed the area for riches. The American government also wanted to control the area for the resources. Constant renegotiations were introduced to reduce the Natives’ lands further and give the American government more access to the area.

To protect settlers and government interests, the United States sent military personnel to the area. Two key events define the era. First, the United States’ 7^th Cavalry was outmaneuvered and slaughtered by Plains Sioux Indians at the Battle of the Little Big Horn. This event is also known as Custer’s Last Stand in reference to the unit’s leader and his unfortunate tactical decisions which doomed them. The success of the Sioux tribes at the Battle of Little Big Horn ultimately opened the flood gates for further American military involvement.

The American government focused on pursuing Sioux tribes and leaders while depleting their access to resources including buffalo. The most famous leader of a Sioux tribe was Sitting Bull. Having led tribal forces at the Battle of the Little Big Horn, Sitting Bull and his people were first forced to into Canada where they faced numerous hardships which led to their settlement on a United States reservation. Some years later a revival of traditional practices emerged after they initially assimilated American ideals. The revival centered around the practice of a Ghost Dance. The teachings of a Sioux holy man named Wovoka stated that the practice of and belief in this dance would bring back native ancestors and the buffalo would return to the plains en mass. The teachings also stated that the practice would make their clothes resistant to bullets and other violence from enemies. Unfortunately, this resurgence partnered with the United States’ misunderstandings led to the final key events of the Plains Wars.

Trying to regain control of the leadership of his reservation, a federal agent issued the arrest of Sitting Bull. Upon the arrival of reservation police, a struggle ensued, and reservation officers killed Sitting Bull and his young son. Sitting Bull’s death was believed to have initiated reprisal against federal troops and agents. It was perhaps that fear of reprisal that led to the Battle at Wounded Knee Creek, which has recently been reidentified as the Wounded Knee Massacre. Units of the 7^th Cavalry rounded up Sioux in a valley near the creek. On December 29^th, 1890, soldiers were tasked with confiscating the Sioux tribesmen’s weapons. During the process, a deaf tribe member was reluctant to give up his weapon. The weapon discharged, and the 7^th Cavalry opened fire with rifles and subsequently cannons on the Sioux. The victims included women, children and elderly tribe members. To date it is considered to be one of the most reprehensible moments in American military history and certainly within the history of the United States relations with Native Americans. The death of Sitting Bull and the Wounded Knee Massacre marked the end to the Plains Wars.

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