Common Rhetorical Devices

When learning to make a speech, a rhetorician would be given a large toolbox, filled with special structural and auditory devices that would bring a speech to life. These devices are called rhetorical devices and most of them are commonly used even in this modern era because they are so effective at creating emphasis and making a strong argument.

Goal of Rhetoric

Cicero believed that oratory had three aims: delectare, movere, and persuadere (to give pleasure, to stir the emotions, and to present the facts persuasively). His speeches have been described as flowing, witty, graceful, balanced, and at times charming. As you have noticed in reading Cicero's speech, he uses periodic sentences - long, complex sentences with multiple phrases and clauses in groups of two or three with many rhetorical devices including anaphora and asyndeton and the main thought not revealed until the end. Cicero frequently used two or three nouns or adjectives or verbs where one would seem to suffice. Because of this, he often seems to be verbose, but Cicero is using these repetitions intentionally to drive home his point. Cicero also likes to use superlatives. Like other orators of his day and not unlike modern political candidates, Cicero had a large repertoire of passages on commonplace themes that he would adapt to fit the occasion - just as politicians today easily deliver opinions on sin, patriotism, or the American way of life.

Common Rhetorical Devices

Speeches were delivered using several rhetorical devices, sometimes multiple devices within a single sentence. Below is a list of some (though not all) the devices a young Roman would learn when at a school of rhetoric, with examples from Cicero's speech Against Catiline to illustrate the example. Many of these examples are only presented in Latin, as they are based on the Latin structure, but others include an English translation, so you can get a sense of the device's use.

**Common Rhetorical Devices**
Device	Definition or Purpose	Latin Examples (with English, if needed)
alliteration	repeated consonant sound, used for emphasis	perge, quo coepisti, egredere aliquando ex urbe; patent portae; proficiscere
anaphora	repeated word or phrase at the start of several clauses	Nihilne te nocturnum praesidium Palati, nihil urbis vigiliae, nihil timor populi, nihil concursus bonorum omnium, nihil hic munitissimus habendi senatus locus, nihil horum ora voltusque moverunt?
anastrophe	departure from normal word order for emphasis	P Scipio, pontifex maximus, Ti. Gracchum mediocriter labefactantem statum rei publicae privatus interfecit (the adjective privatus is placed much further into the clause for emphasis)
antithesis	emphasis through contrast or opposition	Ad mortem te, Catilina, duci iussu consulis iam pridem oportebat, in te conferri pestem, quam tu in nos [omnes iam diu] machinaris. You vs. us - where you have sought our death, should we seek yours?
apostrophe	a sudden change in subject from audience to specific person/group	O di inmortales! ubinam gentium sumus? Up to this point, Cicero has been either speaking directly to his fellow senators or to Catiline. Here, he interjects with "O immortal gods!"
asyndeton	omitting a conjunction	non feram, non patiar, non sinam. (Note too the anaphora used with non) Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit.
chiasmus	criss-cross word order: ABBA (grammatical)	Interrogas me, num in exilium; non iubeo, sed, si me consulis Interrogas (A) me (B)...me (B) consulis (A) vocis expectas contumeliam, cum sis gravissimo iudicio taciturnitatis oppressus vocis (A)...gravissimo (B) iudicio (B) taciturnitatis (A)
epizeuxis	repetition of words with no others in between	Fuit, fuit ista quondam in hac re publica virtus nos, nos, dico aperte, consules desumus
euphemism	substitution of a mild or roundabout expression to avoid bluntness	dum modo inter me atque te murus intersit. only when there is a wall between you and me = when you have been exiled
hendiadys	connecting two words expressing a single idea with a conjunction	vim et manus = violent hands (violence and hands -> violent hands)
hyperbole	exaggeration	Nulla iam pernicies a monstro illo atque prodigio moenibus ipsis intra moenia comparabitur. No injury will now be prepared against these walls by that monster and prodigy of wickedness.
irony	expression of something which is contrary to the intended meaning	Example 1: Nam si te interfici iussero, residebit in re publica reliqua coniuratorum manus; sin tu, quod te iam dudum hortor, exieris, exhaurietur ex urbe tuorum comitum magna et perniciosa sentina rei publicae. Quid est, Catilina? num dubitas id me imperante facere, quod iam tua sponte faciebas? If, as I have long been exhorting you, you depart, your companions, those worthless dregs of the republic, will be drawn off from the city too. What is the matter, Catiline? Do you hesitate to do that when I order you which you were already doing of your own accord? (Cicero is pointing out the irony in Catiline's refusal to leave the city, pointing out that if he did, he would be in a stronger position) Example 2 (irony as self-effacement): sed iam me ipse inertiae nequitiaeque condemno. Translation: but I do now accuse myself of remissness and culpable inactivity. (Cicero is making a case now and despite that, pretends to be ashamed of not taking action, even though he is taking action)
juxtaposition	putting two opposing words next to each other for effect	Non est saepius in uno homine summa salus periclitanda rei publicae. (salus = safety; periclitanda = endanger)
litotes	understatement	neque enim sunt aut obscura aut non multa commissa postea for these things are neither secret nor unknown to a few (in other words, by using "non multa" he is saying that everyone knows - also note the stacking of negatives!)
metaphor	figurative language: using a comparison to create an image (Her love was (like) poison.)	At [vero] nos vicesimum iam diem patimur hebescere aciem horum auctoritatis. But we, for these twenty days, have been allowing the edge of the senate's authority to grow blunt. (comparing the senate's authority to a sword)
praeteritio	"a passing over" - a head fake omission: by saying what you are not saying, you say the thing This is one of Cicero's favorite devices and he uses it often.	Nam illa nimis antiqua praetereo, quod C. Servilius Ahala Sp. Maelium novis rebus studentem manu sua occidit. Translation: For I pass over older instances, such as how Gaius Servilius Ahala with his own hand slew Spurius Maelius when plotting a revolution in the state.
tricolon (triad)	The use of sets of three - Romans found sets of three to be a powerful grouping	clarissimo patre, avo, maioribus (this man had a most famous father, grandfather, and ancestors). Note: this is also an example of asyndeton.

[CC BY-NC-SA 4.0] UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED | IMAGES: LICENSED AND USED ACCORDING TO TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION - INTENDED ONLY FOR USE WITHIN LESSON.