Learning Targets:

Understand and articulate various factors that can lead to memory inaccuracies or lapses.
Explain how external influences and cognitive processes can alter or distort our memories.
Discuss and evaluate the criteria and processes used to differentiate between genuine and false memories.

Courtesy of the AP psychology course and exam description, effective fall 2024. (n.d.).

Forgetting

Forgetting is the inability to remember previously available information. Forgetting is so common that our world is full of reminders. We have reminders on our smartphones through postcards, alarms, calendars, etc. While it may seem that forgetting has no real value, it does have an adaptive value. It allows us to rid our minds of clutter.

Understanding Memory Loss

In a previous lesson, we explored the concept of the forgetting curve, which illustrates how our memory retention changes over time. The curve demonstrates that forgetting occurs most rapidly right after we initially learn something, but then the rate of forgetting slows down as time passes. This highlights the importance of regular review and reinforcement to combat the natural decline in memory retention. By understanding the forgetting curve, we can better appreciate the significance of time in forgetting and the need for consistent practice to maintain information in our memory.

One interesting aspect of memory loss is known as anterograde amnesia. This condition impairs the formation of new memories, making it challenging for individuals to retain information after the onset of amnesia. However, it's important to note that people with anterograde amnesia can still recall events and information from before the amnesia occurred. In contrast, individuals with retrograde amnesia face difficulties in remembering past events and information. This condition typically involves missing pieces of old memories stored in long-term memory. An example of retrograde amnesia could be someone waking up in a hospital without recollecting their identity or life before the incident.

Encoding Failure

Multi-Stage Diagram:
Stimuli/input leads to Short-term memory (15-30 secs), then Rehearsal leads to Long-term memory (1 sec - Lifetime). Stimuli/input can also lead to Sensory Memory (1-3 secs).

Forgetting for all 3 is caused by biological factors, or antecedent processes Encoding failure is one of the most common reasons for forgetting. When encoding failure occurs, it is due to the inability to encode the information into LTM in the first place. This explains why it is easy to forget the name of someone you meet for the first time only a few minutes later.

Divided attention or absent-mindedness is another type of encoding failure. If you are not paying attention to information as it is being presented, you will likely forget it. For example, you are being led on a tour of a new school with a guide. Throughout the tour, you are talking and listening to the guide, who then leaves you at the end, but in a different location than where you began. Due to a lack of encoding, it may be difficult to find your way back.

Storage Decay

Decay theory, or storage decay, states that we forget memories because we do not use them, and they fade away over time. When a memory is formed, it creates a memory trace (a distinct structural or chemical change in the brain). When not used for a period, the physical trace begins to fade and is sometimes interrupted by other learning. Memories need to be rehearsed to stay fresh in our minds.

Failure to Retrieve

Retrieval failure happens when you cannot access a previously encoded and stored memory. Forgetting is caused by one memory competing with or being replaced by another. The similarity of the information is a critical factor in whether it will be retained. The more similar the information, the more likely interference will be experienced.

Memory Interference Diagram showing how Proactive and Retroactive Interference impact Memory and New Memories.

Interference

Proactive interference is the disruption of prior learning (old information) on the recall of added information. If you move to a new home, the memory of your old zip code may interfere with remembering your new zip code. Retroactive interference, on the other hand, is the disruption of new learning (new memories) on the recall of old information. For example, if you have a tough time remembering last year's locker combination because you have learned this year's combination.

Proactive and Retroactive Interference are two commonly confused terms in AP Psychology. Please take a moment to view the video below.

Practice Proactive and Retroactive Interference in the activity below.

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

Have you ever experienced the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon? This occurs when you know that you know a piece of information, but you just can't seem to recall it at that moment. It's like the information is right there, on the tip of your tongue, but you can't quite grasp it. This happens because our brains sometimes have difficulty accessing the exact memory we're looking for, even though it's stored somewhere in our minds. So next time you forget something, just remember, it's a natural part of how our brains work!

Motivated Forgetting

The concept of repression plays a significant role in understanding how our minds protect us from distress. According to famous psychologist Sigmund Freud, our memory systems actively censor certain information to shield our self-image, also known as the ego, from painful or unacceptable memories. This process helps minimize anxiety and preserve our mental well-being. Freud believed that repressed memories stay hidden in our minds but can resurface later, especially during therapy sessions when certain cues trigger their retrieval. For example, a person who experienced a traumatic event in childhood may repress the memory as a defense mechanism, only to have it resurface later in life when faced with similar situations. This fundamental concept is central to Freud's psychoanalytic theory and sheds light on how our minds cope with challenging experiences.

Imagination Interference

Imagination can distort our memories by blending real experiences with imagined details, leading to inaccuracies in our recollections. Additionally, interference happens when new information disrupts the retrieval of existing memories, causing confusion or even completely replacing the original memories. These two factors, imagination and interference, can contribute to memory failures and highlight the complex nature of human memory processes.

Memory Construct Errors

Misinformation Effect

In psychology, differentiating between genuine and false memories is a complex process that involves evaluating various criteria. One important concept to consider is the misinformation effect, which occurs when a memory becomes distorted or altered by misleading information. One famous experiment conducted by Elizabeth Loftus involved showing participants a video of a car accident, then asking them questions that subtly framed their responses in a certain way. Loftus found that the wording of the questions significantly influenced how participants recalled the event, highlighting the impact of leading questions on memory accuracy. This experiment underscores the importance of critically evaluating the factors that can lead to the creation of false memories and the significance of reliable memory recall.

Source Amnesia

Source amnesia is another factor, where we misattribute the origin of a memory, leading to faulty recollection of how or where information was learned. An example of source amnesia is when someone recalls a story they heard from a friend but believes it was their own experience. These factors play a crucial role in understanding the intricacies of memory and how it can be manipulated or misinterpreted. the experience of "déjà vu" arises when an individual senses that the current situation has been previously encountered. This feeling can be prompted by similarities in present and past circumstances, causing the individual to mistakenly believe that the event has already occurred.

True vs. False Memories

In psychology, differentiating between genuine and false memories involves evaluating various criteria and processes. One important aspect is the concept of constructive memory, which can lead to the creation of false memories through memory consolidation and imagination inflation. Memory consolidation is the process of stabilizing a memory trace after initial acquisition, which can sometimes involve adding or changing details. Imagination inflation occurs when imagining an event that never actually happened can lead to the individual believing it did, blurring the lines between real and false memories. By examining these processes, researchers can better understand how memories are formed and potentially distorted, shedding light on the complexities of human memory.

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