Learning Targets:

Describe the principles and mechanisms of operant conditioning.
Identify B.F. Skinner and explain how operant behavior is reinforced and shaped through his theories.
Differentiate between positive and negative reinforcement and outline the basic types of reinforcers.
Clarify the distinction between punishment and negative reinforcement and explain the effects of punishment on behavior.
Discuss why B.F. Skinner's theories and ideas have generated debate and controversy in psychology.

Courtesy of the AP psychology course and exam description, effective fall 2024. (n.d.).

Operant Conditioning

In psychology, operant conditioning is a key concept that involves how organisms learn to associate their own actions with consequences. Unlike classical conditioning, which focuses on associations between stimuli, such as a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), operant conditioning revolves around behaviors and their outcomes. When behaviors are followed by reinforcement, they are more likely to be repeated; however, if behaviors are followed by punishment, they are less likely to occur. Operant conditioning is about how behavior is shaped by the responses it receives from the environment, whether those responses are rewarding (reinforcers) or punishing (punishers). It's important to note that operant conditioning deals with voluntary actions that are under the control of the individual, in contrast to the automatic responses seen in classical conditioning.

The Law of Effect

Edward Thorndike was the first psychologist to investigate how voluntary consequences influenced behaviors. He wanted to find out whether animals, like humans, use problem-solving techniques. In a series of experiments, he placed hungry cats in cages called "puzzle boxes." Food was placed outside the box, and the cats had to perform a series of tasks, such as pulling hoops or stepping on levers to free themselves of the boxes and reach the food. Once they were out, they were rewarded with a meal.

Thorndike determined that learning is a result of consequences. If a behavior is rewarded, it is strengthened. If the result is unpleasant, the behavior is weakened. He called this the law of effect. His findings have been applied in educational settings, and he has authored many books on educational psychology.

B.F. Skinner

Photograph of B.F. Skinner American psychologist B.F. Skinner is one of the most famous names associated with learning. Like John Watson, he believed that only observable behavior is worth studying. However, Skinner believed operant conditioning is more conclusive to real life, while classical conditioning is limited to existing behaviors. Skinner created a series of lawful processes aimed at explaining or ordering behavior.

Operant conditioning, or Skinnerian conditioning, explains learning in terms of how behavior is shaped or maintained by its consequences. He created some key terms to describe this process that you should know.

Reinforcement - Reinforcement occurs when a stimulus or event follows a behavior, thus increasing the likelihood of the behavior being repeated.
- Positive Reinforcement - adding a pleasant stimulus after the desired response. Something is added to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. EX: Receive a bonus check to meet your sales quota at work.
- Negative Reinforcement - The removal of something unpleasant or an aversive stimulus. Escaping the aversive stimuli increases the likelihood of the same behavior increasing in the future. The learner has learned to avoid an event or aversive outcome. EX: Taking aspirin to relieve a headache. The headache is the aversive stimulus. Taking aspirin is the behavior that will be increased.

Understanding positive and negative reinforcement can be tricky at times. The thing to remember is, just like in math, when you see the word positive, you are adding something, and when you see the term negative, you are taking away something. This does not necessarily correlate to "good" and "bad".

Shaping Behavior Through Operant Conditioning

Operant behavior can be shaped through reinforcement, known as "shaping." This technique involves rewarding successive approximations of the desired behavior, gradually leading the individual toward the target behavior. Research conducted with animals has shown that while many behaviors can be shaped through reinforcement, there are limitations. Some behaviors are more resistant to shaping due to instinctual tendencies, a phenomenon called instinctive drift. This highlights the importance of understanding the complexities of operant conditioning in shaping behavior.

One common example of shaping behavior is when you teach a dog a new trick. At first, the dog may not know how to perform the full behavior of rolling over. To shape this behavior, the trainer can start by rewarding the dog for simple actions such as lying down on its side. Once the dog consistently lies down on its side, the trainer can then reward the dog for making slight movements towards rolling over, such as shifting its weight.

Through this process of rewarding successive approximations of the desired behavior, the dog eventually learns to roll over on command fully. This example illustrates how shaping behavior through reinforcement can be applied in training animals, including our furry friends!

Primary and Conditioned Reinforcers

Primary reinforcers like food and water are innate and do not require learning. On the other hand, conditioned reinforcers, like money or praise, derive their reinforcing power from being associated with primary reinforcers through learning. For example, receiving a piece of chocolate (primary reinforcer) to complete homework can positively reinforce the behavior. In contrast, earning a bonus at work (conditioned reinforcer) for meeting sales targets can reinforce the behavior through learning association with receiving primary rewards.

Immediate and Delayed Reinforcers

Immediate reinforcement occurs when a reward is given right after a desired behavior, enhancing the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. For example, when students receive immediate feedback on quizzes, they are more likely to remember and learn the material efficiently. On the other hand, delayed reinforcement involves rewards received after a certain time frame, such as paychecks or good grades. While immediate feedback leads to instant learning, delayed reinforcement can also influence behavior in the long term. Therefore, understanding the difference between immediate and delayed reinforcers is essential in comprehending how behaviors are shaped in psychology.

Take a moment to practice this concept by identifying whether each event below is an example of positive or negative reinforcement.

Reinforcement Schedules

How often do you reinforce behavior? Is the answer every time the behavior occurs or only some of the time? After conducting many experiments on this topic, Skinner found specific reinforcement arrangements to produce strong response patterns or rates of response.

Continuous Reinforcement - This is when you reinforce the behavior EVERY TIME it occurs. It is most effective during the beginning of learning. With continuous reinforcement, acquisition is quick, but so is extinction.
Partial Reinforcement - This is when you reinforce the behavior only SOME of the time. With partial reinforcement, acquisition comes more slowly, but the behavior is not as quickly extinguished. There are four schedules for partial reinforcement.

Learn more about reinforcement schedules in the activity below.

Understanding Superstitious Behavior and Learned Helplessness

In psychology, superstitious behavior and learned helplessness are fascinating phenomena that can occur when reinforcement is unrelated to a behavior. Superstitious behavior happens when consequences reinforce behaviors unrelated to the desired outcome. For example, athletes may wear the same pair of lucky socks during every game, believing it will help them perform better. On the other hand, learned helplessness occurs when individuals feel powerless and think they have no control over adverse outcomes. This can lead to a sense of resignation and a lack of effort to change their circumstances. These concepts shed light on how our actions and perceptions can be influenced by reinforcement, even when it is not directly related to the behavior itself.

Punishment

Punishment, unlike reinforcement, decreases the likelihood that a behavior will take place. Punishment is applied after a behavior has taken place with the goal of decreasing or eliminating that behavior in the future.

Positive Punishment - Positive punishment is the addition of something unpleasant to decrease undesirable behavior. EX: Getting grounded for bad grades.
Negative Punishment - Negative punishment removes something pleasant to decrease unwanted behavior. EX: Your parents take away your smartphone for bad grades.

Punishment works best when it is applied directly after an undesirable behavior. However, research has found reinforcement to be more effective at changing behavior. Some of the criticisms of punishment include the possible increase of aggression, the fact that it tells you what not to do but does not tell you what you should be doing, and the fact that undesirable behaviors are only suppressed, not forgotten.

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