Eli Whitney and the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution is the name given to the stage of the 19th century when power-driven machines operated by semiskilled or unskilled workers replaced hand tools operated by skilled laborers, altering the quality of work for many people. U.S. inventor Eli Whitney best illustrates the rise of industrialism with his invention of the cotton gin and his development of interchangeable parts for muskets. Whitney invented the cotton gin (engine) in 1793. It is a machine that rapidly removes cotton plant seeds from the valuable cotton fiber used to make thread and fabric. By producing more cotton in a day than any person could working by hand, the gin reduced the cost of processing cotton and greatly raised the profit from growing it. To further cut costs and raise profits, slaves were often put to work running the cotton gins in the southern states.

From left: photograph of cotton gin, diagram of cotton gin

Another industrial improvement Whitney developed was interchangeable parts. Prior to industrialization, a broken mechanism or machine had to be discarded and replaced because all its parts had been handmade by skilled workers to fit only that mechanism. Whitney introduced the practice of manufacturing identical parts so only the broken part would need to be replaced to repair the whole machine. He applied this process to making muskets. If one piece of the musket's mechanism broke, the owner could continue to use the musket after that piece was replaced with a matching piece. Interchangeable parts made it possible for semiskilled workers to mass-produce mechanical products.

Advances in Technology

In addition to Eli Whitney’s inventions, there were several technological advances that powered the expanding market economy and increased efficiency in the manufacturing of goods. Some of these innovations included the previously mentioned interchangeable parts and the cotton gin but also the steam engine, the telegraph, and machinery to produce textiles and agricultural tools. (There were other innovations in the Gilded Age after the war.)

It is worth mentioning here that the Industrial Revolution was divided into two parts by the Civil War. Advancements essentially stalled in the war years.

Several new inventions improved efficiency in the agricultural sphere in the antebellum period.

The early part of the Industrial Revolution was characterized by animal-powered implements and manually-operated tools.

Eli Whitney and Interchangeable Parts:

By the mid-19^th century mass production strategies had expanded beyond the textile mills of New England and lots of industrial processes were based on interchangeable parts. The parts of a particular machine or tool were made to exact specifications and could be standardized. Eli Whitney (the guy who invented the cotton gin in Georgia in 1793) also invented interchangeable parts as a part of the production of small guns. Whitney wasn’t the first person to conceive of interchangeable parts, but he was the first person to successfully promote the idea in practical usage. Within a decade, the idea had spread to many different industries.

Robert Fulton and Steam Power:

In Great Britain (where the Industrial Revolution got its start) steam power had been harnessed in the late 18^th century for powering ships and railroad locomotives. But in the United States, Robert Fulton built a functioning steamboat called the Clermont, that was demonstrated in 1807 on the Hudson River in New York.

Within two decades steamboats dominated commercial water transportation/shipping on the major rivers (ex. the Mississippi River) and canals (ex. Erie Canal in upstate New York) and the Great Lakes. Railroad locomotives were the next mode of transportation to be powered by steam engines. Steam power was implemented in factories in the years leading up to the Civil War---the steam power replaced water wheels in factories since the beginning of the 19^th century.

Samuel Morse’ Telegraph:

The major communications advance in the antebellum period was the telegraph, the brainchild of Samuel Morse. He sent the first message --“What hath God wrought?”--in 1844. The first telegraph line stretched from Washington, D.C. to Baltimore, Maryland. The messages were transmitted in long and short electrical impulses, labeled “Morse code.” By 1850, telegraph lines connected the country, usually built parallel to railroad tracks. The telegraph connected the distant parts of the country and facilitated the development of a national market for products and services when previously communication would have taken days to arrive at their destination. For example, now a factory owner in New England could transmit an order via telegraph to the Deep South in just a few minutes.

Transportation Improvements:

Canals and Roads:

Sketch of the Erie Canal The first improvements (1800-1830) included the expansion and improvement of roads and canals plus the development of the steamboat. The construction of canals and roads was called (at the time) internal improvements. The improved roads and canals allowed for the expansion of trade (especially between eastern cities and the West (present day Midwest---then the Midwest was the “West”).

These large projects were usually built by businesses in the private sector and they usually got subsidies and stipends from the federal and state governments since the government couldn’t afford to invest in internal improvements. The most significant of these projects in this era was the Erie Canal, completed in 1825 in update New York. The Erie Canal connected the Hudson River to the east with the Great Lakes, connecting New York City and the interior of the country. The cost of moving a ton of cargo from Buffalo, New York to New York City decreased by 90% with the completion of the Erie Canal.

Probably the most important road project was the construction of the National Road (also called the Cumberland Road) which ran from Maryland into the Ohio River Valley. Construction began in 1811 and was not completed until 1853.

Soon enough though roads and canals were overshadowed by a faster and more powerful mode of transportation: railroads.

Railroads:

In 1829 the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad laid the first railroad tracks. By 1860, railroads connected the Eastern Seaboard and the Mississippi River (soon extending beyond the river). Railroads made shipping goods faster and led to expanded markets. The cost to move 2000 pounds of wheat 1 mile by wagon in 1800 was between 30 and 70 cents; the price declined to a little over a penny by rail car in 1860. In the post-Civil War years railroad construction increased exponentially and connected the Atlantic and Pacific coasts which expanded the country’s economy.

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PHOTOGRAPH OF THE COTTON GIN IS COURTESY OF THE SMITHSONIAN MUSUEM OF AMERICAN HISTORY. CC-BY-NC