19c - The Eastern Question (Lesson)

The Eastern Question.

The second half of the 19th century in continental Europe was a time of political wrangling and scheming. By this time, it had become clear that the Concert of Europe had hopelessly failed to accomplish its goals: stability, legitimacy, and balance of power. Nationalists throughout Europe were experiencing varying degrees of success from minor concessions to self-determination as well as the establishment of new states such as Italy and Germany. The first half of the century was dominated by Metternich while the second half was dominated by the German master of realpolitik, Otto von Bismarck.

International foreign policy in Europe during this time was driven around the alliance systems and maintaining a balance of power through the concept of collective security. The Eastern Question centers around what to do with the crumbling Ottoman Empire.

 

Crimean War.

The war had its beginnings over the Russian demand to act as the protector of the Balkan Greek and Eastern Orthodox Christians in response to the French having been granted the role of protector of the area's Roman Catholics. The Russians saw themselves as the "big brother" to the eastern European Slavic peoples and, in that role as the dominant political entity in the region, they were determined to influence, and to some degree control, the Ottomans. As such, Nicholas I ordered troops into the Danubian territories (modern Romania) to protect Russian interests and planned to withdraw once the Turks guaranteed Greek Orthodox rights. In response to the Czar's military movement, the Turks demanded that the Russians withdraw and when they didn't, the Turks declared war against Russia beginning the Russo-Turkish War. A year later, Nicholas drafted a settlement to end the hostilities which the Turks rejected. The French and British, fearing that the Russians would gain too much influence in the region actively supported the Turks beginning the Crimean War. This war, fought almost exclusively on the Crimean Peninsula resulted in high casualties and little tactical headway. By the end of 1854 Austria joined Britain and France in signing the Four Points of Vienna:

1. Russia should renounce any claims to occupied territories.
2. The 1841 Straits Convention would be revised.
3. Navigation in the mouth of the Danube (on the Black Sea) should be internationalized.
4. Russia should withdraw any claim to having a "special" protective role for the Greek Orthodox residents in the Ottoman Empire.

In December of 1855, Austria under pressure from Britain and France sent an ultimatum to Russia (Nicholas I had died, and was succeeded by his son Alexander II). Alexander II, who had always been opposed to the war, withdrew Russia and signed the Peace of 1856. The peace agreement required Russia to acknowledge the following terms:

• International Commission which would regulate maritime traffic on the Danube
• Turkish control of the mouth of the Danube
• Renounce all claims to the Danubian territories of Moldavia and Wallachia (led to the establishment of Romania)
• Agree to fortify the Åland islands
• Renounce its claim as protector of the Greek Orthodox residents of the Ottoman Empire
• Return all occupied territories to the Ottomans

 

The Eastern Question Escalates.

By the 1870s, a series of Balkan crises occurred which began with Russia against the Ottoman Empire and later escalated to Britain against Russia. In 1876, Turkish forces defeated Serbian armies resulting in Serbia requesting assistance from the great powers. A conference was agreed upon which resulted in an agreement favorable to the Serbs and Russians. Once aware, the British advised the Turks to scuttle the agreement, which they did. Two years later, the Russians sent forces across the Danube resulting in Western Europe supporting the Ottomans as Britain and Austria were alarmed by Russia's influence in the East. In 1878 the issues between Russia and the Ottomans were settled by the signing of the Treaty of San Stephano:

• Bulgaria was established as a state under Russian influence
• There was a transfer of certain territories to Russia
• The states of Serbia and Montenegro were expanded
• The autonomous state of Bosnia-Herzegovina was established under Russian control

The British, under Prime Minister Disraeli, denounced the treaty and dispatched a naval squadron while Bismarck offered his services as a mediator. In June and July of 1878, the major powers met with the Treaty of Berlin as an end result of the conference. Prior to the meeting, the British had negotiated a series of secret agreements with Austria, Prussia, and Turkey. The Treaty of Berlin accomplished three things:

1. Restricted Russian expansion
2. Reaffirmed Turkey's independence
3. Maintained British control of the Mediterranean

 The specifics of this treaty included:

• Recognition of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro as independent
• Established an independent Bulgaria
• The Austrians gained Bosnia and Herzegovina
• Cyprus was transferred to Great Britain

As the outcome of this conference was hardly favorable to the Russians, they blamed Bismarck for betraying Russia. The Russians withdrew from the Three Emperors League causing Bismarck to scramble for a new set of alliances.

 

 

---

 

In your notes, respond to the following questions.

1. What was the Crimean War’s impact on the post-1815 European state system? What was the connection between Great Powers’ involvement in Crimea and the subsequent events in the Balkans?

 

 

[CC BY 4.0] UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED | IMAGES: LICENSED AND USED ACCORDING TO TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION