IND - 19th Century Social Reform, Institutional Responses, and Reform (Lesson)
19th Century Social Reform, Institutional Responses, and Reform
Looking for Leadership
Throughout the Industrial Period, the form and status of families, class, and social groups were influenced by the political, economic, and cultural factors of the time. This changed the look of the individuals in society.
As has been previously discussed, the growth of industrialization led to numerous problems in European society. In response, political movements and social organizations arose to address both the new and old problems of society.
Political Parties – As problems arose in the cities as a result of the growth of industrialization, people began expecting that mass-based political parties would address their needs. Mass-based political parties are parties that represent large groups of citizens who have not been politically represented in the past. These parties depend upon having a large amount of members in order to receive funding from them. If the numbers in the party decrease, so do the financial contributions. The role of the mass-based political party is to express the particular interests of the membership. These parties originally came from labor units and movements that promoted social and economic reforms. As suffrage expanded, political parties sought to win political victories by appealing to the people.
Great Britain - Conservatives and Liberals in Great Britain continued to vie for support from the British people in the 19th century. Conservatives, whose ideals were supported by the actions of the Congress of Vienna, lost power as the 19th unit progressed. Industrialization brought about a new middle class. The Tory Party emerged as the Conservative Party in the early 1800s. When Benjamin Disraeli came to power as the Prime Minister of Great Britain, he was able to maintain the power of the party over the Liberals by extending inclusion and power to the working class. He did this by having to support reform acts that democratized the political system for votes, thereby, convincing the middle class to vote conservative. His successors were not quite as successful and the Conservative Party's power decreased as the 20th century dawned.
France – French politics was much more unsettled in the 19th century than in Great Britain. After Napoleon was defeated in 1814, the monarchy was restored with the coronation of Louis XVI. Louis attempted to be moderate and was temporarily overthrown by Napoleon, who made a comeback but Louis XVI got the throne back after Napoleon’s defeat at the Battle of Waterloo. Several monarchs followed but the Revolution of 1848 brought an end to this monarchist line and the Second Republic was established. Universal suffrage for men was enacted and, after several struggles between monarchists, conservatives, and liberals, the Third Republic was formed. The political parties of the Third Republic continued to fight for support from the men of France.
Working for the People
During the 19th century, the popularity and power of labor unions continued to rise. The goal of the labor union was to fight for better working conditions and benefits for the workers who were an integral part of the Industrial Revolution. They did this by negotiating with factory owners for better wages, shorter hours, and better conditions. Workers used the power of their vote to convince political parties and labor unions to work harder to improve their situation. Many European governments responded to the needs and desires of workers like Germany and Great Britain, however, others, like Italy continued to limit suffrage.
German Social Democratic Party - The Social Democratic Party in Germany was formed in 1863. It formed from the General German Workers’ Association. The name originally had Socialist in the title but it was outlawed and the party changed its name. The party’s original platform had a Marxist theology. It was formed because of the desire of workers. They embraced a Revolutionary process that achieved change, although it was gradual, through political participation.
Russian Social Democratic Party – This party, established by workers in 1898, believed that even though Russia was still primarily agrarian, that there was great potential for industrialization. The platform of the party was in line with Marx and Engels. The RSDP was significant because they chose to use the political process, rather than revolution, even though they were involved with Lenin and the Russian Revolution.
But What About the Ladies?
As universal suffrage became the norm in 19th century Europe, feminists continued to work for legal, economic, and political rights as well as better working conditions. The equality movement started with divorce and property rights but these efforts were usually unsuccessful in the 19th century. The feminists of the time began working on obtaining the vote in the 1850s, reasoning that if they could get this right, the others would soon follow.
Emmeline Pankhurst was an English political activist who was instrumental in obtaining women’s suffrage in Great Britain. Her methods included militant actions such as breaking windows, arson, and hunger strikes. Emmaline had been raised by political activist parents but there was little expectation that she would follow in their footsteps as she was not born a male. She married another political activist, Richard Pankhurst, who supported her efforts to achieve universal suffrage for women. Her daughters, especially her oldest daughter, Christabel, worked with her to achieve suffrage. Pankhurst and her daughters used public displays and the media to bring attention to the plight of women in Great Britain. Just weeks after her death, the women of Great Britain were granted the right to vote.
Barbara Smith Bodichon was also an English political activist. Bodichon’s area of interest concerned the laws surrounding women’s rights regarding employment, equality, and particularly, the education of women.
Help from Other Places
The Industrial Revolution brought mass migrations to European cities and, as we have discussed before, the living conditions are terrible. Many nongovernmental people attempted to improve the life of the working class by assisting the poor and leading them down a path of acceptable social behavior.
The Sunday School Movement – Started by Robert Raikes. In the 18th century in Great Britain, Raikes became interested in prison reform and believed that education was the way to keep boys from becoming adult prison inmates. Because these boys worked in factories during the day, the only time they could attend school was on Sunday. Laypeople taught the class which had a heavy religious base in order to teach appropriate behavior and social expectations.
Josephine Butler – British political activist who campaigned for numerous feminist issues including women’s suffrage and the right to better education for women. However, she is probably best noted for her efforts to abolish child prostitution and to end the trafficking of children and women into European prostitution.
Responses of the Institutions
As industrialization brought new challenges, governments responded by changing from a laissez-faire approach to economic and social policies, as promoted by the economist Adam Smith to more interventionist policies. Instead of allowing the economy and social issues to “work themselves out”, the constituents of the European countries expected the government to take action to make their lives better. Governments, in turn, enacted reforms based on forces such as public opinion, important people, and charity organizations. These reforms did help to make life better for the city dwellers
These governments had little choice when it came to taking a more hands on approach to the problems brought about by industrialization. They could not depend upon the business owners to make reforms on their own as the owners were more concerned with making more of a profit. They were able to achieve this by paying the workers less and decreasing safety. Liberals wanted the governments to establish oversight of the companies so the governments passed legislation that regulated business, a move that was supported by the labor unions.
One of the ways that the government was able to improve the lives of the people was to modernize the infrastructure. They did this by building sewage and water systems at the urging of Edwin Chadwick. Chadwick was a leading reformer in the area of sanitation and performed a study that concluded homes needed to have a permanent water supply. This action improved both the sanitation of the cities as well as the health of the residents by removing disease-carrying waste from the streets. The addition of public lighting made the streets safer and public housing made living arrangements better. Gone were the days of the shacks made from random materials. Cities were redesigned to offer better living arrangement for people including parks and green spaces. A wonderful example of this was Georges Haussmann’s redesign of Paris, an effort that widened the boulevards in Paris and improved sanitation, water, and transportation. This created the Paris that we know today. Public transportation was implemented as well.
Prisons were built and the purpose of the prisons in Europe shifted from a purely punitive goal to one of rehabilitation. The idea was that if the behavior was fixed then the person would be a contributing member of society. Security improved in the city as police forces were established. Most European cities had used armies as domestic security but now, Britain and France led this reform
School’s In
As the 19th century progressed, the topic of education continued to be an important topic. Education was now compulsory in many European countries. Education was free to all children with the idea that education was a pathway to social and economic improvement. As the Industrial Revolution continued and the 2nd Industrial Revolution began, skilled labor was in high demand. It wasn’t enough to just be able to read and write. Now, workers required special skills. This education allowed that to happen. Also, countries used schools to instill patriotism and nationalism by controlling the curriculum that was presented to students. By teaching that their country was the very best from an early age, countries were creating citizens who would be more willing to fight for the country and its ideals, as we will see soon in World War I.
In your notes, respond to the following.
- Industrialization created great wealth while also generating serious social and economic problems. Political parties with large followings, trade unions, feminists, and organizations not tied to the government arose in response to the need to ameliorate the negative consequences of social and economic change. Explain how these developments meant that the 19th century saw the widespread implementation – but also modification – of ideas whose origins lay in the Enlightenment.
- Industrial cities became the crucible of significant, government-sponsored reforms. Provide examples of such reforms and link them to the new doctrine of liberalism.
- Discuss the impact of mandatory education on social relations and family life.
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