SPP - 18th-Century Society and Demographics (Lesson)

18th-Century Society and Demographics

In the 17th century, there had been a series of circumstances that made it difficult for Europeans to survive and flourish. Some of these conditions included low-productivity agricultural practices, poor transportation, and adverse weather. These conditions made it difficult to produce enough crops to feed the population, let alone create a condition that would allow the population to grow. Periodic famines increased the death rate and decreased the birth rate. However, by the 18th century, these circumstances changed, allowing for a balance between the food supply and the population. This resulted in population growth. We have already studied the Agricultural Revolution of the 18th century including the new technology that allowed more food crops to be produced and transported. This lesson will focus on how those changes affected society and the population.

By the 18th century, the Bubonic Plague was no longer considered to be an epidemic disease in Europe. However, smallpox was still a problem. The disease had been introduced by returning Crusaders in the 11th century and by the 19th century, approximately 400,000 Europeans were dying per year. During the early 18th century, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu began using the practice of variolation to vaccinate Europeans from the disease. This process required the introduction of some of the pus from the active smallpox sore and scratching it into the skin of the person being immunized. This causes a build up of antibodies to try to fight off the disease. Those who survived this would have immunity from the deadly virus. This practice was taken further by Edward Jenner who began vaccinating people in 1796.

 A satirical poster of a proposed monument to 18th century vaccination supporters.

Population Growth and Decline in the 18th Century

In the early 17th century, Europeans were postponing their marriages until much later in life. The main reason was economic. People had to save up to buy land on which to live and work. However, with the technological growth in the 17th century and the growth of the cottage industry, people were able to earn more money earlier, allowing them to purchase homes and provide for families. This meant potentially larger families but the birth rate really didn’t rise that much. Instead, because of increased agricultural output and disease control, the death rate decreased. This caused an overall growth in the population.  However, during the 18th century, Europe also saw a large increase in the number of illegitimate births, from 3% in 1750 to 20% in 1850. This doesn’t impact the overall population growth, but rather, speaks to the changes in society. Unwed mothers were not accepted in society and frequently became involved in prostitution to survive.

Childhood Changes

During the 18th century, the rate of childhood and infant mortality decreased. From 1700 to about 1775, one-third of infants perished before their first birthday. Many common diseases of the time, such as smallpox, diphtheria, and whooping cough, were deadly for small children and babies. Also, until the time of the Agricultural Revolution, food sources could be limited and babies didn’t always get the nutrients they needed through their mother’s milk since the mother didn’t have enough food herself. However, by the 1780s with the changes in food supply, the rate of death decreased. This, coupled with the increased commercial wealth of many, allowed families to focus more on children and child-raising. The chances of their survival to adulthood was higher than ever before so parents who could afford it, paid attention to the education and upbringing of their children in order to prepare them for their adult lives. This attention to children was much more common among the elite and the commercial wealthy as peasants still faced challenges to health and longevity.

 

Social Classes and Demographics

"Middling Sort"/Bourgeoisie

  • Were traders and merchants.
  • Ranged from wealthy entrepreneurs to struggling retail merchants and innkeepers.
  • Could purchase land (and often the titles that were associated with the land).
  • Out of their ranks came lawyers and physicians as well as surgeons(generally these were former barbers, anatomy was now being taught in schools, but surgical skills were expected to be learned ON the job).

 Peasants

  • Formed vast majority of the population (75-90% depending on the country).
  • Were the source of wealth that sustained the crown, nobility, and church.
  • Not well respected. Bavarian officials saw them as a hybrid of man and animal.
  • Villages were the center of their universe.
  • Viewed outsiders with suspicion.
  • 30 to 70% of their income went to taxes.
  • Some could own land, but many were constantly in debt as they borrowed against the next harvest.

In West Europe

  • Serfdom was almost non-existent.
  • Nobles presided over local courts which added to their income by levying legal fees and fines (What types of fees? You could be fined or face a fee for poaching, trespassing, civil suits, inheritances, guardianships, etc).
  • Taxes included the taille (land tax), gabelle (salt tax), and the corvee (labor tax, typically utilized for working on roads, which could be anywhere from 2 days - France - to 200 days - Denmark).
  • Other duties included providing food for holidays, food for the lord's dogs, and spinning or weaving cloth for the lord.
  • Death and Estate taxes were common, typically paid with money as well as the deceased's best animal.

Political cartoon of Vengeance of the serfs.Conditions worsened the further east one went

  • Peasants in Russia lived in hovels made from earth, clay, straw, branches, and twigs; floors were made of mud, and beds of straw.
  • Only the relatively wealthy could afford wood.
  • All must swear an oath of loyalty.
  • Very few free peasants, the majority were still serfs.
  • Gallows were often next to the Manor house, in plain view to serve as a warning.
  • Polish nobles could execute serfs, and Russian lords could sentence them to hard labor or torture them provided the serf did not die immediately from the torture.
  • Serfdom in Russia in particular became more in line with slavery, serfs could now be bought and sold, and they could also be given away as part of a noble's dowry.
  • Serfs could be sold individually or as a family and could be exchanged for animals.
  • Lords could refuse to allow serfs to marry and could choose their occupation for them.
  • A poll tax was instituted on all males (souls) of which only nobles were exempt. Villages were collectively responsible for payment.
  • 25-year army conscription was common (most soldiers did not survive the 25 years).
  • Resentment built and led to rebellion - Pugachev rebellion (1773-1774) several million peasants went against the lords, and 3,000 landowners died before it ended. Rebels were hung by hooks through their ribs.

Urban Growth

  • Most of Europe is rural, but some areas begin to urbanize. The reason for this was that the Agricultural Revolution produced more food but needed few workers.
  • People followed the jobs, leading them into cities.
  • By the end of the 18th century, Europe had 22 cities ranging in population from 170,000 (Berlin) to 950,000 (London).
  • 1/5 of the British population lived in London at one time or another.
  • Cities faced challenges such as providing a healthy environment and providing protection to urban dwellers.
  • As the number of poor increased in the cities, there was more awareness of poverty, crime, and prostitution as social problems.

 

Leisure activities develop

  • Theaters and concert halls are built (this is the time of Mozart, Bach, and Handel).
  • Cafes are opened, coffee is only available to the wealthy, and the poor drink beer at taverns.
  • French became the language of the upper class.
  • Some nobles go broke buying expensive foods, wines, and other luxury goods.
  • 3 cornered hats, wigs, and stockings become symbols of the upper class.
  • Walls spring up around homes as a barrier between the rich and poor.
  • Expanded publishing (25 periodicals in 1700 that number jumps to 158 by 1780). 

 

 

Question Mark Icon

 

In your notes, respond to the following questions.

  • What caused the European population to decline during this period? What caused it to rise?
  • What role did women play in the Enlightenment?

 

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