REF - 16th Century Society and Politics (Lesson)

16th Century Society and Politics

We’re Moving Up!

The 15th and 16th centuries were a time of relative stability when it came to society. There were people who were now in what could be termed the middle class as well as those who have gained wealth through trade and other economic activity. While money alone didn’t change the social status of Europeans, it did provide more rights and opportunities.

Class

The top of the social hierarchy remained those who had been born into the upper class and had the appropriate family pedigrees. This would include monarchs and nobility. Being born with a title or wealth assured men the most rights in society and that didn’t change even when others rose in society, such as the merchant elite. The merchant elite were those who were making lots of money from trade or economic activities. This influx in cash allowed them to purchase land, which was a sign of wealth. It was simple…..land meant you had arrived. At times, they could even work their way up into the upper class without the purchase of land.  Adjustments were made to Parliament to allow for the inclusion of these nouveaux riches without letting them have more power than the upper class.

Titles for the upper class were usually hereditary, although some could be achieved through good work, especially in England. Aristocrats often received tax breaks such as the French Second Estate, a social class made up of nobility who paid no taxes in pre-Revolutionary France. Legal protections were also available at a different level than for those who were not upper class.

 

Religion

A European’s place in society would frequently be determined by their religion despite their class. In a Catholic country, like France, being a French Huguenot and someone in the upper class, did not necessarily assist them in maintaining their social class. Many upper class Huguenots had to flee France to avoid persecution. In Spain, Jews were expelled and those who stayed were forced to practice their religion in secret. This illustrates that you needed to be the right religion in the right place to achieve or maintain an acceptable social status.

Gender

European countries in this time period were patriarchal in nature. That is to say, men had all the social capital. Women were expected to answer to their husbands, fathers, brothers, etc. All money that would have been inherited or earned belonged to the male members of the family. This was not necessarily the case, however, in lower income urban and rural households as the men and women worked together as a unit to achieve tasks. There were tasks defined according to gender, such as cooking, cleaning, and child-rearing but the women may have had more economic autonomy within the household. While the poorer women had more voice in economics than the upper class, neither had any say in political affairs as they were both excluded due to their gender.

 

I am Woman

As explained above, women in the 16th century were limited in their rights, both politically and economically. However, questions were arising and being debated about the role of women in society. La Querelle des Femmes, or the woman question, began being debated around the time of the Renaissance and continued throughout the Age of Reformation. The debate was about the nature and status of women. One side claimed that women were weak and needed guidance while the other side argued that women were capable of leadership roles in church and society and that they had just not been given an opportunity to prove this.

While questions arose about a woman’s role in the family as well as the level of education she should be able to attain, some women found an opportunity to lead in the area of religion. While Catholic women were not, and still are not, able to achieve priesthood and lead a congregation, many women could join a convent and become a nun. This allowed a woman to use her talent to serve others but never allowed her to obtain a position of authority within the Church.

The Protestant Church also limited the role of women in the church, expecting that they would tend to the home and remain subservient to their husbands, fathers, and brother. However, the Anabaptists were an exception in that they allowed women to rise to positions of authority including as preachers.

 

I’ve got 99 problems and morals is definitely one of them.

As the social fabric of Europe changed, due to the shifting authority of religious institutions, the behavior of Europeans changed as well. While people were used to the moral expectations of the Catholic Church, these new Protestant religions brought a change to behavioral expectations and shared community values. Behaviors that had once been policed by the Church were now having to be addressed by city governments. Stricter codes on prostitution and begging.

Stricter Codes on Prostitution and Begging

The lack of educational prospects and the highly patriarchal society led to many women becoming desperate for employment. With a shortage of jobs for women, thousands turned to prostitution to survive. The Catholic Church had canon law that dealt with prostitution but had recognized that, while the prostitute was still considered a sinner, they couldn’t really control the actions. With the growth of the Protestant faith, actions such as trying to shut down brothels and forcing prostitutes to distinguish themselves through clothing displayed an attempt to control the profession. Efforts were also made to control begging within towns and cities.

Restriction of Carnival

For centuries, Catholics had celebrated the festival of Carnival the week before the period of Lent. The period of Lent was, and still is known as a period of penance. Carnival, however, was a period of drinking, dancing, and general debauchery before the seriousness of Lent begins. Protestants did not approve of the behavior associated with Carnival, partially because of the connection to the Catholic Church and partially because of the behavior. They passed laws to restrict the celebration of Carnival. While this may have worked in the larger urban areas, the people in the rural areas continued to celebrate.

If a citizen was caught breaking the new restrictions, they would be subjected to public humiliation such as being placed in the stocks, a wooden contraption that trapped a person until such time as the authorities decided to release them. Stocks were typically placed in the center of the town so that all citizens could see the person who was being punished. People threw fruits and vegetables at them and insulted them for breaking the rules. Another form of public humiliation was charivari, or a mock parade. During this event, people would either drag the wrongdoer out and make them participate, have a neighbor impersonate them, or carry an effigy of the person. As they wound their way through the streets, they would make loud noises and music and mock the wrongdoer for their behavior. These methods of public humiliation helped ensure communal compliance with the expected behavioral norms.

 

Too much time on my hands

Europeans of this time period were enjoying some political, economic, and social stability. This allowed for an increase in leisure time and, leisure time activities became popular. These activities were organized around the religious calendar as well as the agricultural calendar. The different activities were usually for the entire community instead of for individuals.

All Saint’s Day

This Catholic holiday occurs on November 1^st and is used to celebrate all saints, both known and unknown. In the Protestant faith, not all sects celebrate the day, however, those that do celebrate all Christians living and dead. The day is also known for Feasts, particularly in the Anglican Church.

Blood Sports

This time period also saw the growth of blood sports. These sports could be human to human in interaction, such as boxing. Another form of blood sport, human to animal, was seen in sports such as bullfighting. Animal to animal blood sports also became popular as a leisure time activity as evidenced by the popularity of cockfighting or fox hunting.

 

I put a spell on you.

The 14^th and 15^th centuries (due in part to the Plague) see new definitions of Satan as the devil who walks on earth harming people through floods, plagues, death, etc. Many begin to believe that in order to accomplish these tasks, Satan must have had human help. Thus men and women begin to find themselves on trial for witchcraft.

Definition of witches:

• Were ancient
• Anti-Christian heretics
• Practiced maleficium (evil magic, harmful magic)

Initially those suspected of witchcraft were tried for other crimes, but that changes as the idea of witchcraft evolves.

Witchcraft emerges as "diabolical" - to be a witch in early modern Europe, it requires you to practice maleficium and be diabolical, meaning in league with the devil. The new definition requires people to rethink their idea of contact with the devil, expanding it to include the radical supernatural. So just what is "radical supernatural"? Think flying. Flying becomes an important aspect as it explains how the witches reach their secret meetings and most importantly, WHY none of these meetings were ever seen/discovered.

To be a witch, it was crucial to have a pact with the devil, this becomes a legal document that now shows that the witch broke the law and can now be held accountable. The "Devil's mark", typically a mole or freckle, is seen as evidence of this pact. Witches must attend Sabbat (a creation of the 16th century) as it was believed that witches must worship the devil collectively. Sabbats provide evidence of conspiracy.

Why does this matter? As the witch hunts gain steam during this time, the hunt itself becomes a largely judicial process. With the shift to the inquisitor method, evidence must be gathered and be given in front of a judge and jury. There were secret interrogations (in every nation but England) as confessions became of the utmost importance. Torture was used for interrogation as well as for punishment.

 

There were rules that governed torture:

• To be used only if guilt is fairly certain
• Should not result in a person's death
• Pregnant women were exempt as were children and the elderly
• Leading questions were not allowed
• One could only be tortured 3 times
• Witches could be tortured longer than others with greater pain inflicted because it was believed the devil protected them from pain

Witchcraft moved from being a religious crime to a secular one.

Reasons for the witch craze:

• Reformation caused massive upheaval
• Socio-economic problems - large population growth, price increases, social unrest
• Printing press and increased literacy spread the word

The hunts happened at different times for different reasons, and most areas in Europe are not affected.

Demonology = the science of witchcraft. Many religious men were also demonologists, they studied the idea of demons and hell in order to better understand and spread their religion. Two Dominican monks, Jakob Sprenger and Heinrich Kramer, who were demonologists as well as inquisitors wrote the Malleus Maleficarum - Hammer of Witches. The Malleus Maleficarum was a handbook on how to identify, try, and punish witches. It was reprinted 8 times before 1500 and was composed of all known facts of witchcraft.  

However, many of the local authorities highly disliked Sprenger and Kramer and found them too extreme (most demonologists were not radical, and were more well-rounded scholars). When conducting the Inquisition in Tyrol, they were actually forced to leave the city, and all of the women who had been arrested were released.

So who was accused of witchcraft?

• 75-80% were women with 20-25% being male. There were, however, regional differences - in England for example only 20 - 30% of those accused were women. In other areas up to 95% of the accused were women.
• Rural areas were more likely to try witches, urban areas are less likely to believe in superstition and magic.
• Over 50
• Single
• Lower class/poor (drain on society)

Why?

• It was determined women were weaker than men thus the women were seen to be the devil's preferred target.
• In reality: there was an increase in older widowed women who had no family to support them. They were seen as a drain on society and this was a way to eliminate them.

Triggers for witchhunts (as they happen sporadically)

• Personal misfortune (death of a loved one, infertility, romantic failure, theft, death of an animal, crop failure)
• Communal misfortune (widespread fire, crop failure)
• Scapegoat
• Free confessions

Why does it decline?

Decline doesn't happen everywhere at the same time. There are judicial changes as the years progress. More and more have been accused and the accusations are no longer regulated to the poor, isolated women in society. Instead more and more are being accused in order for the accuser to gain in some way (politically, financially, etc). With that shift, the courts adjust and begin to demand more evidence. Now it was no longer enough to accuse, you must prove they are a witch in order to have the person go on trial. That proof must demonstrate harmful magical intent. The witche's mark is no longer accepted and torture is deemed unreliable. The identity of accusers was no longer private and there were stiff penalties for false accusations.

Other reasons for decline:

• The early stages of Scientific Revolution are beginning; the universe is mechanical and there is no room for witchcraft.
• Religious conflicts are ending, life is becoming more stable, and religion becomes rational rather than emotional.
• Socio-economically speaking, life is improving as people are better off than they were before.
• People are becoming more accustomed to seeing large numbers of widows and no longer feel threatened by their presence.

 

 

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In your notes, respond to the following questions.

• What similarities are there between the European 16^th Century Witch Craze and the 18^th Century Witch Craze in the American colonies? What role does hysteria play, and could this happen again?

 

 

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