SCI - Contributing Factors, continued (Lesson)
Contributing Factors, continued.
Galileo.
Galileo Galilei was a poor Florentine nobleman who had initially considered a religious career. But by the age of 25, he became interested in mathematics and opted to become a professor instead. This led to an interest in science, in particular in scientific discovery as he completed experiments to determine outcomes rather than simply speculated. At the time, the majority of scientists guessed at outcomes, making predictions rather than actually testing what might happen. Galileo is one of the first to base his arguments on experimentation rather than theory.
Galileo formulated the Law of Inertia (an object continues in motion forever unless stopped by some external force), shattering Aristotlean physics. Upon hearing of the first telescope in Holland, Galileo made a version for himself and began observing Jupiter. Often Galileo is incorrectly credited with creating the first telescope. While the actual inventor is unknown, most consider Hans Lippershey to be the inventor as he is the first to apply for a patent. While Galileo did not create it, he did perfect it and was the first to use it for astronomy, leading to the misconception. With the assistance of the telescope, Galileo could see further than before allowing him to discover 4 moons of Jupiter - Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto.
He was also able to prove the Copernican theory that celestial bodies did not move on crystalline spheres. He was under the employ of the Medici's of Tuscany which explains his decision to name the moons Cosmica Sidera, Cosimo's Stars. (Their names were later changed when, at the time Galileo made his discovery, another scientist, Simon Marius, independently discovered them as well. Kepler suggested the names, which Marius published in his book in 1614. Incidentally, Marius is one of the few scientists who argued in favor of Brahe's universal theory.) Galileo's Starry Messenger, in which he published his findings on Jupiter and the Earth's moons as well as defended Copernican theory, drew the ire of the theologians.
Pope Urban VII, a personal friend of the scientist, allowed Galileo to continue his work and publications despite religious objections, provided he made no judgment in regards to the Aristotlean vs. Copernican system.
Eight years later, Galileo published Two Chief Systems of the World. This work takes shape as a conversation between 2 men, one a believer in the Aristotlean world view, the other, a supporter of Copernicus. Within the work, Galileo openly defends Copernicus and repudiates the Aristotle world view to the point of openly mocking it and it's supporters. As a result, Galileo goes on trial for heresy.
Faced with torture unless he admits his view is incorrect, Galileo recants, becoming a symbol for the struggle between religion and science.
Sentenced to house arrest, Galileo was still allowed to conduct experiments from the confines of his home until his death. Galileo had been unable to leave his home for any reason. It is said he went blind because he was not allowed to leave to see a doctor when he began having trouble with his eyes. It is also said that when he made his declaration to the Inquisital board, underneath his breathe he muttered "but it still moves." This is a reference to the Copernican model of a movable universe rather than the fixed one of Aristotlean theory. Basically, Galileo is stating that while he recanted to save himself, ultimately he still believes.
Isaac Newton.
Newton studied the spectrum of the new sciences and mathematical disciplines including optics, physics, astronomy, and mathematics. His work, Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (Principia), is considered the most important work ever written in the field of science and mathematics. Among the accomplishments of Newton were: the defining of motion by formulating the concept of force and the laws of motion, understanding the composition of light, developing calculus, building the first reflective telescope, and defining the law of gravity.
Francis Bacon.
British politician and writer, Francis Bacon, argued that knowledge had to be pursued through empirical and experimental research not by religion. He believed facts would speak for themselves, that general principles would emerge and thus knowledge would increase. He also worked to justify patronage, arguing that scientific discoveries brought greater control over the physical environment, therefore making people rich, and nations powerful. Though a major advocate of experimentation, it must be noted that he himself carried out few experiments and made no significant discoveries.
Rene Descartes.
Primarily a mathematician, Descartes believed there was perfect correspondence between geometry and algebra. He determined geometric figures could be expressed algebraically. As such, Descartes is the father of analytical geometry and the creator of the Cartesian Plane. Perhaps he is best known for the saying "Cogito, ergo sum' ("I think therefore I am"), Descartes scorned traditional science and learning in favor of deductive reasoning.
He followed Francis Bacon and Galileo in criticizing traditional methods and beliefs, but unlike Bacon, who argued for an inductive method based on observed facts, Descartes made mathematics the model for all science, applying its deductive and analytical methods to all fields. His 1637 work, Discourse on Method was a rejection of "handed down" material learning. Instead, Descartes explained one must begin with a blank slate in order to understand the world. Each problem is separated, moving from the simplest idea to the most difficult in order to solve. He divided the world into 2 parts: Mind and Matter. Descartes agreed with earlier ideas of God as clockmaker, but felt once everything was in motion, God stepped back and let everything run its course.
Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning.
Both reasoning methods represent two distinct ways of understanding the world and using logic. Inductive reasoning mandates that you begin with observation, then, using those observations, design a general rule or principle that explains the facts. Deductive reasoning, on the other hand, maintains that you begin with basic truths which you then use in order to work towards a valid conclusion.
Bacon, with his emphasis on experimentation, advocated Inductive reasoning whereas Descartes, the more analytical of the two, upheld the merits of Deductive reasoning.
The scientific method was actually a combination of these two theories of knowledge: Empiricism (a.k.a. induction) advocated by Bacon and supported going from particular knowledge (observation) to general knowledge. Rationalism (a.k.a. deduction) was advocated by Descartes who stated that senses can lie and that the only way to find truth was to start from one fact, which was "I am doubting" and proceed to deduce all other statements – "I think, therefore I am." Descartes also stated that there was an essential divide between the world of thought and reality (tangible objects). In other words, he took Bacon's statement that religion (faith) and science (fact) should be separate and turned it into a far-reaching divide between the reality of the world and our perception of it.
Watch this brief Khan Academy video to see an explanation of both concepts in a real-world problem that will help clarify the difference between the two.
Discoveries, in conclusion.
The Scientific Revolution allowed many new epistemologies (theories of knowledge) to develop. First, the belief in mechanism, which stated that scientists should question how (not why) things worked, became more widespread, especially through Galileo and Newton. Mainly, however, the discoveries helped the scientific method develop. The scientific method, or rather how to obtain and verify knowledge, stressed experience, reason, and doubt and rejected all unsubstantiated authority. The scientific method revolutionized science, and made measurement of data, and mathematics essential parts of science. From the Scientific Revolution onwards, science was based on pure fact: the acquisition of data and the testing of theories.
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