The John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson Administrations, 1961-1969

You cannot be held in slavery forever. -Willy Brandt, Mayor of West Berlin, 1961

The presidencies of Kennedy and Johnson spanned the 1960s—both administrations, though, ended abruptly with Kennedy's assassination in 1963 and Johnson's refusal to run for another term in 1968. The decade was a period of progression in mankind's work to reach outer space and a period of regression in the relationships of the major players of the Cold War. The decade also saw an economic boom in Europe as rebuilding from World War II completed, the mass decolonization of Africa, an escalation in the Vietnam War...just have a look at the timeline below to find out what the decade contained.

Early 1960s—International

"The Four Asian Tigers" is a term used to describe the highly-developed economies of Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan that started taking of in the early 1960s. They are known for their success with industrialization and economic growth due to the export-driven economies they established in the early 1960s. But they are also known for influencing the economies of the "Asian Cub" nations of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam, who copied their economic styles later on. [Side Note: Interestingly, Hong Kong is now part of the communist People's Republic of China but it is located in a special economic zone that allows it to continue its mixed economy.]

March 1, 1961—International

Founded on this date, the Peace Corps is a volunteer program run by the United States whose mission statement declares its purpose to be "to promote world peace and friendship" by providing trained manpower to interested nations introducing Americans and non-Americans to increase understanding between cultures. Most of the work done by the Peace Corps focuses on economic and social development. From its inception, over 200,000 Americans have participated in programs in over 140 nations.

April 11, 1961—Israel

After World War II, Adolf Eichmann (the German officer responsible for carrying out the Final Solution) hid under a false identity in Argentina. In 1960, though, the Israeli Secret Service caught up with him and placed him under arrest for war crimes. Held in Israel, the trial of Adolf Eichmann started on April 11, 1961 and lasted for months with hundreds of documents and witnesses provided by the prosecution. Eichmann's defense argued that he was not responsible for what happened during the Holocaust as he was merely following orders. Found guilty of crimes against humanity and of war crimes, Eichmann was sentenced to death by hanging. The widespread media coverage of his trial re-ignited interest in the Holocaust that raised public awareness among a new generation of the horrors of World War II.

April 12, 1961—Science & Technology

On this date, Soviet cosmonaut (their term for astronaut) Yuri Gagarin became the first human to travel in space. Once again, the Soviet Union bested its American rival at a claim for a "first" in the space race as the cosmonaut orbited the Earth for 108 minutes. Less than a month later, the United States sent its first astronaut into space—Alan Shepard—although he did not achieve orbit. But American astronaut John Glenn did orbit the planet in February 1962.

Orbit of the first manned spaceflight

April 17, 1961—Cuba

Planning for a Cuban-exiles invasion of Cuba started during the Eisenhower administration in the United States—but the preparations and actual event occurred during Kennedy's presidency. The Bay of Pigs (as the invasion is known) started on April 17, 1961, and was a complete failure. Trained and funded by the CIA, the brigade of Cuban exiles intended to overthrow Fidel Castro's communist government in Cuba, but they were defeated within three days. It was a huge Cold War embarrassment for the United States and it pushed Castro's government ever closer to the Soviet Union.

May 31, 1961—South Africa

Under international pressure from many nations—including those within the British Commonwealth, in which South Africa was a part—to reverse its racial policies and end apartheid, South Africa chose to convert its government to a republic and to leave the British Commonwealth instead.

August 13, 1961—Cold War

As the last major political/military European event of the Cold War, the Berlin Crisis began when the Soviet Union demanded that western armies be removed from West Berlin. When the West refused to comply with the ultimatum, the Soviet and East German armies closed the borders to West Berlin and started construction on the Berlin Wall. Tanks from the East and West faced each other across the borders and tensions ran very high between the United States and the Soviet Union. After weeks of this face-off, the tanks backed away after Kennedy and Khrushchev struck a deal and construction of the wall continued. Effectively, the Berlin Wall served as a barrier on the emigration of East Germans looking to live outside of a communist nation.

October 30, 1961—Science & Technology

On this date, the Soviet Union test detonated the most powerful thermonuclear weapon ever tested—the Tsar Bomba (as it was called in the West)—on an island in the Barents Sea north of the Soviet Union.

August 5, 1962—South Africa

While many members of South Africa's African National Congress (ANC) went into exile after the Sharpeville Massacre, Nelson Mandela stayed in South Africa as a prisoner at the Pretoria Local Prison until his release a few months later. After that, he continued to stay in and travel around his nation (in disguise) to enlist more members for the ANC and to organize protests against apartheid; he also traveled around the world to enlist global support for the ANC and global sanctions against apartheid. But in August 1962 his luck ran out and he was arrested once again—this time for inciting workers' strikes and leaving the nation without permission. During his first trial, he was found guilty and given a five-year prison sentence. While in prison, though, the South African government unearthed evidence that allowed them to charge Mandela with further crimes—specifically, an attempt to violently overthrow the government. During this second trial over the summer of 1963-64 (keep in mind that it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere when it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere,) Mandela gave a three-hour speech entitled "I am Prepared to Die." His trial and speech received international attention; but despite international protests, Mandela (and his cohorts) were found guilty and given sentences of life in prison. Nelson Mandela spent the next 18 years of his life in the prison cell pictured here on Robben Island and another 9 years at a different prison.

Photo of Nelson Mandelas Cell at Robben Island

October 5, 1962—International

In October 1962, Eon Productions released the first James Bond film—Dr. No—and launched a slew of secret agent-themed movies throughout the rest of the decade that touched on themes of the Cold War and the race for space.

October 16, 1962—Cold War

For two weeks in October 1962, the Cold War reached its most dangerous period. During the Cuban Missile Crisis, the United States and the Soviet Union faced off against one another over the presence of Soviet missiles in Cuba. Those missiles could easily reach the United States and President Kennedy wanted them removed. Tensions rose as the world stood on the brink of nuclear war before the two superpowers negotiated a deal. The United States would remove its missiles from Turkey in exchange for the Soviet Union removing theirs from Cuba. However, this portion of the deal was a secret as knowledge of American missiles in Turkey was not well-known. Instead, the two superpowers arranged a public deal whereby the United States agreed to never invade Cuba again in exchange for the removal of the Soviet missiles.

March 8, 1963--Syria

In 1947, the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party formed with the motto of "Unity, Liberty, Socialism" and the goal of uniting the Arab world. Ba'ath literally translates into "renaissance" or "resurrection." In March 1963, the military committee of the party staged a coup and took over the government of Syria. But the challenges of governing a nation caused dissension within the party leading to a split. Three years later, another wing of the Ba'ath Party staged another coup (followed by another coup four years later.)

May 25, 1963—International

The Organization of African Unity (OAU) was established on this date with the signing by 32 governments for a number of purposes that summarily included the improvement of life in Africa without colonialism through cooperation among African nations. Without a military wing, the organization was more of a "think tank" than an enforcer of its ideals. But it did play an important role in erasing colonialism and fighting white-minority rule on the continent. From its inception, the OAU held annual summit meetings.

June 11, 1963—Vietnam

To bring attention to the persecution of Buddhists in South Vietnam by Ngo Dinh Diem's government, a Buddhist monk set himself on fire at the busy intersection outside of the Cambodian embassy in Saigon. Images of his self-immolation act were published around the world, prompting President Kennedy to state that "no news picture in history has generated so much emotion around the world as that one." Afterwards, the United States warned the South Vietnamese government to address the Buddhist Crisis or risk a disassociation with the U.S.

June 16, 1963—Science & Technology

On this date, the Soviet Union accomplished yet another "first" in the space race by launching the Vostok 6 carrying the first female cosmonaut into space. Over a three-day period, Valentina Tereshkova orbited the earth almost fifty times.

June 20, 1963—Cold War

To avoid future tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union as occurred during the Cuban Missile Crisis, the two nations agreed to establish a "hot line" communication system to link Washington, DC with Moscow. Put in place a few months later, the "hot line" has never been used.

October 10, 1963--International

On this date, the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (PNTBT) went into effect prohibiting all but underground testing of nuclear weapons. Concern over possible nuclear fallout (containing Carbon-14) from nuclear tests led to the United States, Great Britain and the Soviet Union signing the PNTBT. Within six months of the treaty going into effect, 100 other nations signed on as well. As you can see from this chart, the implementation of the ban coincided with the decrease of Carbon-14 present in the atmosphere.

Graph of Radiation spike

November 1, 1963—Vietnam

Despite receiving aid from the United States, the South Vietnamese government as led by Ngo Dinh Diem was overthrown in November 1963 by his own military. The next day, the ousted leader and his brother were assassinated (or executed—depends on who tells the story.) For the next year, group after group replaced each other in unsuccessful attempts to establish an effective government in South Vietnam. All the while, the communists in South Vietnam—the Vietcong—grew stronger, causing the United States to increase the economic and military aid it provided to South Vietnam. [Side Note: The Kennedy administration was aware of the oncoming coup to oust President Diem but opted not to try to stop it.]

November 22, 1963—United States

While visiting Dallas, Texas, United States President John F. Kennedy was assassinated. His vice president—Lyndon B. Johnson—became the nation's 36^th president.

Photo of President Kennedys Dallas Motorcade

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