RTI - Dar al-Islam (Lesson)

Dar al-Islam

The previous unit ended with an introduction to a brand-new religion—Islam—and a teaser regarding the religion's future. At the end of the previous unit, you were told to expect information concerning the death of the founder of Islam, the spread of Islam throughout the Arabian Peninsula and how it transformed a region. But there is even more to this story because within a couple of centuries of Islam's founding, the new religion went beyond transforming a region and, ultimately, transformed continents.

Map showing the expansion of the Islamic World during its first 150 years.

During its first few centuries, Islam grew into a globalizing or universalizing religion that spread throughout Afro-Eurasia uniting multiple ethnic groups into the Dar al-Islam , "the House of Islam." With regards to religion, this was not the first time that a relatively new religion became a dominant religion of an area within a short span of time—Christianity had already done the same thing throughout the Roman and Byzantine Empires. However, Christianity and Islam took two different paths towards becoming globalizing religions. If you will remember, Christianity developed within an existing empire and became a globalizing religion once the Roman Emperor converted to the religion and declared it as the state religion for the empire. Islam arose in an area that was not controlled by an empire; nor was it adopted by an emperor as the state religion. Instead, empires arose out of Islam.

If you will remember, just after Muhammad experienced his revelations from God, or Allah in Arabic, he set forth sharing God's message with his family, friends and neighbors within his hometown of Mecca (located on the Arabian Peninsula.) As his message "threatened" the economic leaders of the city by encouraging monotheism and taking care of the needy, the economic leaders of Mecca chased out Muhammad and those people who subscribed to his message- the Ummah (Community).

Map of the HijraDuring Muhammad's exile, he and his followers went to Medina (a couple hundred miles north of Mecca, but still on the Arabian Peninsula.) There, they found a more accommodating place to live, continued the spreading of Muhammad's revelations from God, and converted more and more people to the new religion of Islam. Along with the Five Pillars of Islam, Muhammad discussed the role of jihad, which is Arabic for struggle.

He warned the new Muslims that, as humans, they would be in a constant struggle to become better Muslims and to follow the Five Pillars. But there was a second interpretation of the term jihad as well—and that was the struggle that Muslims would be in with non-believers (like the economic and political leaders of Muhammad's hometown of Mecca that exiled him.)

As it turned out, Muhammad was an exceptional leader in guiding the Ummah through the internal struggle to become better practitioners of Islam as well as an exceptional leader in guiding the Ummah in an external struggle with non-believers. In 630 CE, Muhammad led his followers back to Mecca where they defeated the polytheistic non-believers that led the city and converted the polytheistic temple of Mecca with its polytheistic idols—the Kaaba—into a monotheistic mosque. And from that point forward in history, Mecca became the spiritual homeland of Islam. It is towards Mecca that Muslims pray five times a day. And it is to Mecca that Muslims travel to complete the Fifth Pillar of Islam- the Hajj or pilgrimage- to pray as they walk around the Kaaba.

View the video below to see this in action.

 

Muhammad died a short time later, in 632 CE, supposedly without leaving instructions as to whom should succeed him as the leader of the Ummah. As Islam had become, not just the religion of the region, but also the government of the region—this was a problem. Upon his death, a split appeared among the Ummah as to who should rise up as the leader of them. You see, Islam had not just transformed the spiritual beliefs and practices of the region, but also the political practices. Whoever became the religious leader of Islam would also become the chief judge, head of state and military commander as well—the Dar al-Islam was a theocracy.

Over the next three decades, a few men rose up to fill the vacancy left by Muhammad's death. The first was Muhammad's father-in-law, Abu Bakr. As caliph, or successor in Arabic, Abu Bakr became the leader of the newly founded theocracy—the head of religion and state. His religion was Islam and his political territory was called the caliphate—and they were, for all intents and purposes, inseparable. As the religion grew, so did the caliphate and the Dar al-Islam. Within decades, the Dar al-Islam expanded beyond the Arabian Peninsula to include Syria, Egypt and Iraq as Abu Bakr and his three successors defeated the neighboring Sassanian Empire and pushed the Byzantine Empire out.

Abu Bakr and his three successors later came to be known by a faction of Muslims as the Rightly-Guided Caliphs. Their reign over the Dar al-Islam was relatively brief (only thirty years) but very important as it marked the period when Islam spread beyond the Arabian Peninsula and the Quran was put into writing. When the last of these four caliphs (Ali—Muhammad's son-in-law) died, his son, Hasan, took over for a brief period before abdicating due to pressure from a prominent family. Following Hasan's resignation, the Umayyad Dynasty rose up to lead the Dar al-Islam for the next century.

Ways in which the Umayad Dynasty impacted Dar al-Islam Moved the political capital to Damascus, Syria (Mecca remained the religious capital though) Made Arabic the official language Allowed the practice of other religions within the Dar al-Islam but required a special tax from those that didn't convert to Islam Began the practice of political succession to be based on heredity Expanded the Dar al Islam throughout North Africa and into Spain (established a capital city in Cordoba) Built the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Constructed engineering feats to connect the Islamic World that rivaled those built at the height of the roman Empire Enacted laws that prevented Arabs from interacting with non-Arabs in the Dar al Islam. Also prevented non-Arabs from holding political or religious titles

Of the points listed on the above chalkboard, pay particular attention to the Umayyad accomplishments at expanding the Dar al-Islam, their reluctance to allow non-Arabs political power within the Dar al-Islam, the beginning of hereditary succession of caliphs, and the building of sacred Islamic sites within Jerusalem. Why? Because each of these points led to specific consequences,

Cause and Effects of Dar al Islam Expansion into North Africa and Europe led to the conversion of thousands of locals to Islam. (Some converted due to a change in spiritual beliefs, some converted as a means to avoid higher taxes.) Over time, Muslims would begin to outnumber non Muslims within the Dar al Islam Preventions put into place to keep non-Arabs from holding political power within the Dar al-Islam. Political resentment grew among non-Arab Muslims within the Dar al Islam Succession of caliphs based on heredity. This reignited the argument that first arose following Muhammed's death as to whom should lead the Dar al-Islam. Muslims splintered into two denominations: the Sunni who felt that Abu Bakr and the "rightly Guided Caliphs" were the proper successors of Muhammad - and the Shi'a who believed succession should have followed the descendants of Ali (the last of the "Rightly Guided Caliphs) The construction of the Dome of the ROck in Jerusalem. Jerusalem was considered sacred to three montheistic religions that will compete in the future for what was considered as the Holy Land by all three

Of these events, the two with the most immediate consequences for the Umayyad Dynasty (or Caliphate) was the hereditary succession of caliphs and the decision to hold Arabs above non-Arabs within the political and religious community. As mentioned above, the hereditary succession of caliphs to rule the Umayyad Caliphate exacerbated the already divisive issue over who should have succeeded Muhammad back in 632 CE. Those Muslims who felt that the right path had been followed starting with the rise of Abu Bakr became the Sunni; and those that felt that succession should have started with Ali (the last of the Rightly Guided Caliphs) and followed his sons became the Shi'a. In the Umayyad Caliphate, the Shi'a constituted a minority of Muslims (especially as more non-Muslims—without a previous stake in the argument—converted to Islam under the Umayyad regime) and Shi'a resentment grew.

With regards to the treatment of non-Arabs under the Umayyad Caliphate, have a look at the map below...

Umayyad Caliphate Map

 

As you can see at the time, the Dar al-Islam included the Middle East, North Africa, and part of Spain; this meant that non-Arabs made up a considerable portion of the Umayyad Caliphates population. It was also the home of Persians, Turks, Egyptians, Berbers and Europeans. According to the teachings of Muhammad, all Muslims were to be treated equally. As these non-Arab ethnic groups converted to Islam, you can imagine their feelings towards a theocratic political system that separated them from the Arab Muslims who held power and the resulting resentment that grew.

Predictably, those within the caliphate that harbored resentments began to convert their feelings to actions. The Shia Muslims began to assert themselves, as did the non-Arabs, and the Umayyad Dynasty went into decline. It was at this point that a group of people that had long contested the Umayyad right to rule started military campaigns to take over the Dar al-Islam. In 750, the Umayyad Dynasty fell when its last leader fled to Spain and established a new home and realm in the city of Córdoba.

The Abbasid Dynasty took over the Dar al-Islam (except in Córdoba) and ushered in a golden age for the Islamic World that lasted for centuries. Learn more in the activity below.

 

Despite all of these accomplishments though, the Abbasid Dynasty (or Caliphate) ran into similar problems as the Umayyad Dynasty.

Causes for the decline of the Abbasid Dynasty Continuation of the internal strife between Sunni and Shi'a Muslims over who should be in charge Internal strife between different ethnic groups living within the Dar al-Islam even as Persian, european and Byzantine peoples pushed to reclaim territory from outside the Dar al-Islam Revolts by Turkish warrior slaves that ultimately led to their breaking away from the Abbasid Caliphate and creating their own capital in central Iraq Local control of areas within the Dar al-Islam led to the carving up of the empire with a new Shi-a dynasty forming in norther Iran and Seljuk Turks in central Iraq

Let's look at a couple of these points a little more closely.

  • Continuation of the debate over whom should lead — All Muslims agreed that the Qur'an should be revered and that there was a single God to whom they were to submit; but on other matters they differed. Their differences aligned with whom they thought was the rightful leader of the Dar al-Islam. Sunni Muslims believed that the rightful heirs to lead the Islamic World started with the four Rightly-Guided Caliphs, followed by the Umayyad and Abbasid Dynasties and they constituted the vast majority of Muslims within the Dar al-Islam. Shi'a Muslims argued that the rightful heir to Muhammad was Ali (who did reign from 656 to 661 CE,) followed by his descendants. While these descendants did not hold political titles during the Umayyad and Abbasid Dynasties, they had not disappeared over the centuries. Instead, many of Ali's descendants served the Dar al-Islam as imams (religious leaders that oversaw the prayers in mosques.) The division between these two groups expanded into arguments over Sharia (Islamic law,) the Hadith (a collection of Muhammad's sayings that influenced daily life almost as much as the Qur'an,) and other theological tenets that affected both the practice of Islam and the governing of the Islamic World. As the Sunnis aligned with the Umayyad and Abbasid Dynasties, the Shi'a appealed to many of those that were left out of power but still remained a minority within the religion. Even so, there a came a time when the capital of Baghdad and the Abbasid Dynasty was ruled by a Shi'ite family (from c. 950 to 1050 CE.)
  • Internal strife led by non-Arab ethnic groups — While the Abbasid Caliphate was not as extensive as the Umayyad Caliphate, the former still ruled over many different ethnic groups that eventually pushed to have their own lands under their own control. For centuries, Turks had migrated into the heartland of the Dar al-Islam. Eventually they stopped paying tribute to the Abbasid caliphs. Led by the Turkish warriors previously employed by the Abbasid Caliphate to serve in their army, the Turks eventually revolted from Abbasid rule on the eastern side of the Dar al-Islam. On the western end of the Dar al-Islam, Berbers were joined by politically repressed Shia Muslims of Iraq and Iran that had migrated west. Together, they overthrew many local Abbasid rulers in North Africa and started their own regime that eventually conquered Egypt. At this point, they established the Fatimid Dynasty—a Shi'ite regime with its capital in Cairo that lasted until 1150 CE.

The result of all of this strife was the fracturing of the Dar al-Islam. By the beginning of the 13th Century, the Islamic World existed as three distinct regions...

In the West - In North Africa, Arab rule prevailed but with Berber influence At its core - within Egypt, Syria and the Arabian Peninsula military men of non-Arab origins held power In the East - Throughout central Asia, Iran and Eastern Iraq the remains of the Abbasid Dynasty claimed power. In reality, however, they deferred to Turkish military commanders

However, it was not this internal fracturing that brought an end to the Abbasid Dynasty. Instead, the source of its demise came from outside of the Dar al-Islam in the form of Mongols!

 

 

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Recap Section

Watch the video below to review what you have learned.

 

RESOURCES IN THIS MODULE ARE OPEN EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES (OER) OR CREATED BY GAVS UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED. SOME IMAGES USED UNDER SUBSCRIPTION.