ORG - Axial Age Thinkers and Second-Generation Societies (Lesson)
Axial Age Thinkers and Second-Generation Societies
The title of this lesson is "Axial Age Thinkers and Second-Generation Societies." That's a mouthful and you might not know what it means—so let's start with that. "Axial Age" is a term that is used to describe the period when radical thinkers emerged and transformed their societies during the 1st Millennium BCE. These radical thinkers, or philosophers, spent their time trying to determine what makes the ideal society and included an early one we've already talked about (Zoroaster.) Their new ideas challenged the way life was seen in the societies they lived in. Those societies are known as " Second-Generation Societies " because they were societies that built upon the lessons learned from their predecessors (those civilizations discussed in the previous unit.) Building upon the old ideas, the "Second-Generation Societies" incorporated new ideas and changed the norms of their cultures—hence, "second-generation" as they were the successors of the first civilizations.
South Asia
If you will remember from the last unit, when the Vedic Peoples (Aryans) arrived in the Indus River Valley, they unified the region through a common language and belief system rather than through a common political system. The common language was Sanskrit and the common belief system became Hinduism and these two cultural elements united those living in the area of the Indus River Valley.
Around 600 BCE, waves of Vedic Peoples spread out from the Indus River Valley into the Ganges Plain, which includes modern-day eastern Pakistan, northern India and all of Bangladesh. They built cities that evolved into states. Two kinds of states arose there: One ruled by hereditary monarchs; another ruled by a small elite class forming an oligarchy. Within the oligarchies, sub-levels of classes were added to the Varna (remember this? These are the four classes of people found in Vedic society) along with rules governing the interactions between the classes and sub-levels. The Varna, along with the sub-level additions, became the basis for the caste system of Hinduism. Determination for the class one belonged to under this system often came from the class one was born into or the role one played within the society. As complex societies, there were plenty of roles to go around- doctors, bankers, traders, barbers, cooks, tailors, entertainers, even waste management. That's right—waste management. (And this is important.) The cities that sprung up on the Ganges Plain developed with sanitation in mind- there were garbage bins on street corners, deep sink wells for dirty water, and graded roads to allow water to run off rather than pool up. Those people within the society employed in the dirtiest jobs- managing the cities' sanitation efforts- formed a separated class of people. (Here comes the important part.) They were known as "untouchables" for their dealings with the cities' filth and were positioned on the outskirts of their society despite their important role within it. (This social position made this very large class of people very receptive to future social changes.)
In contrast to the "untouchables" were the Brahmans (also sometimes spelled as Brahmins) Composed of the highest people within the Hindu caste system, Brahmans served as priests who performed the religious rituals but also as the "glue" responsible for uniting the land through language and religion. Feeling that hereditary monarchs originated from the divine and bolstered the Brahmans' role in Hindu culture, Brahmans were not fans of the new oligarchic system based on wealth or power and worked to undermine it. Naturally, the Brahman struggle to rid society of oligarchies did not sit well with everyone. Three major responses grew out of the resentment towards the Brahman stance on the new social order. Click through the activity below to learn about these responses.
Vardhamana Mahavira, Siddhartha Gautama, and those responsible for the Upanishads were the "Axial Age Thinkers" of South Asian "Second-Generation Societies" and forever changed the social and cultural landscape of their homelands. Let's move on to meet their contemporaries living in East Asia.
East Asia
The Zhou Dynasty in modern-day China lasted for eight centuries and affected more people over a greater expanse of land than the empires of southwest Asia (the Middle East) and the Mediterranean combined. Based on the "Mandate of Heaven" doctrine, the monarchy passed on to roughly 39 kings, usually father-to-son, during that time. But it wasn't always smooth-going. The Zhou Dynasty can be divided into two distinct periods: the Western or Early Zhou Dynasty (1045-771 BCE) and the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (770-221 BCE.) The Eastern Zhou Dynasty can be further divided into two more periods: the Spring and Autumn Period (722-481 BCE) and the Warring States Period (403-221 BCE.) These divisions can be confusing, so look at the graphic organizer below for a little clarification before we dive into what happened to make these divisions...
Based on the name of one of the two sub-periods during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, you can tell that things weren't smooth sailing for the Zhou. But even the Spring and Autumn Period had its difficulties. During the Spring and Autumn Period of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, regional rulers focused on obtaining natural resources, recruiting men for armies, and overseeing conquered areas. To do this, one state would fight another in a single face-off. There were over five hundred battles fought between the states of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty along with approximately 100 civil wars within the individual states themselves. To make matters worse, the people of the Zhou Dynasty had, by then, mastered the making of iron—their weapons were stronger and more deadly. Naturally, there came to be people who questioned this way of life—those people and their questions introduced the " Hundred Schools of Thought." Basically, this meant that the Zhou Dynasty philosophers began to philosophize and they were supported by the rulers of the land. The scholars needed the state for funding (sitting around thinking didn't pay much then,) and the state needed the scholars' expertise to advise in political situations.
The most famous of these philosophizing scholars was Confucius. (Remember the mentioning of a teacher whose name sounded like "Confuse Us" in the introduction to this unit? This is him!) Confucius lived c. 551-479 BCE. As a product of the uncertain and dangerous time within which he lived, Confucius set to work on a moral framework to guide the rulers (and people) of the state. Essentially, he argued that people behaved ethically, not to attain rewards, but because it was in their nature to do so. Therefore, he set out to understand and explain ethical behavior and how rulers (and people) could master it. Although he never wrote down his instructions, his students did in a series of works known as The Analects. According to his students, Confucius taught about the basis of ethical action and the guidelines by which one could perform ethical actions.
Confucius believed that if a ruler (or a person) followed his guidelines to perfecting one's moral character, the ruler (or person) would become a junzi, or "superior man." In contrast to the ideals and norms of the time and the ruling class, Confucius defined a junzi more by his benevolence and goodness- especially in regards to familial or filial piety- rather than by his wealth.
But not everyone within the "Hundred Schools of Thought" felt the same way. According to Chinese legend, there was a man known as Laozi (or Lao-Tzu,) who was a contemporary of Confucius and wrote a book called the Daodejing . Recent scholars argue whether or not Laozi (which means "Old Master") really existed, but the book attributed to him definitely does. The Daodejing was first known by the name of its supposed author, Laozi, and appeared sometime during the 6th or early 5th Century BCE- roughly around the same time as Confucius taught his moral guidelines. The name of the work converted to Daodejing during the late 4th or early 3rd Century BCE when it became recognized as a classic in Chinese literature and was elaborated on by Master Zhuangzi. The title roughly translates to "The Book of the Way and Its Power" or "Classic of the Way and Virtue." In either translation, the most important word of the title is "Way" or Dao (also known as Tao.) And it is the founding text of Daoism (or Taoism)—a religion/philosophy that shunned the rigid rites and social hierarchies beloved by Confucius and Confucianism. Instead, the Daodejing and Daoism argued for the following of the best path of living, or the Way (Dao,) by doing nothing (wuwei.) Rather than attempting to become a "superior man" as Confucius encouraged, Daoism claimed that there was a natural order to things and that man would have a better life if he (or she) just accepted the world as it was.
Notice the approximate date of when the Laozi became the Daodejing. It was during that period of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty known as the Warring States Period. If you look at the map below, you will see the boundaries for the different states as they existed at the beginning of the Warring States Period.
This period- as you can guess from its name- represented a time when the Eastern Zhou Dynasty fractured into seven large territorial-states with rulers so powerful they came to call themselves kings despite being territorial rulers in a dynasty. These supposed kings focused on the administration of their districts through the use of infantries comprising conscripted peasants along with professional troops. Along with the use of new weapon technology (the crossbow,) these infantries practiced a new style of warfare that differed from that practiced during the Spring and Autumn Period. In the earlier period, states sent their troops out to face off against each other in single battles that were timed to allow for farmers to return home during certain seasons to tend to their harvests. However, because of the massive size of the infantries of the Warring States Period, several battles could be fought simultaneously and these campaigns were no longer beholden to the farming seasons. Scholars believe these massive infantries included as many as one million commoners, a thousand chariots, and tens of thousands of calvary using crossbows. The states used these infantries to fight each other. So the way the world as it was, at the time of the Daodejing becoming a classic, was a mess. One can see the appeal of Daoism and the reason for its rising popularity.
Qin Dynasty
The state that most successfully navigated the Warring States Period was Qin. Their success in the areas of economic growth and increased food production eventually resulted in their overthrowing the Zhou Dynasty in 221 BCE. The Qin king renamed himself Shi Huangdi (which translates into "First August Emperor.") In so doing, Shi Huangdi halted the contemporary use of "king" and adopted the former title of "emperor" that was used before the Zhou Dynasty. Rather than follow the strict ethical directions of Confucianism or the relaxed attitude of Daoism, Shi Huangdi implemented a policy based on the philosophy known as Legalism. This philosophy developed during the 3rd Century BCE under the guidance of Master Xun. As one of the "Hundred Schools of Thought," Legalism promoted the idea that people naturally tended towards the evil and, therefore, needed an authoritarian hand to control their behavior. This concept fit Shi Huangdi's style very nicely and he banned contrary philosophies, especially Confucianism. Using Legalism as a guide, the Qin Dynasty proceeded to unite the warring states during its short lifespan—it only lasted fourteen years from 221 to 207 BCE. Below is a list of their accomplishments following the strictures of Legalism. As you read through them, ask yourself if each accomplishment was a good thing or a bad thing—by the end of the list, you'll understand why the Qin Dynasty was so brief.
The constant warfare, high taxes, and heavy-handed legal system (in some instances, Shi Huangdi had "criminals" buried alive) of the Qin Dynasty led to rebellion. Before the rebellion ended, Shi Huangdi died (210 BCE) and his successor killed himself (207 BCE.) Thus ended the forerunner to China's true "Second-Generation Society," the Han Dynasty. Before moving on, though, here's an interesting tidbit of information. "China" is the western version of the name for China—Mandarin Chinese refers to China as Zhongguo. So how did the word "China" originate? Zhongguo doesn't sound anything like "China." Rumor has it that it originated from westerners adopting it from the name of the Qin Dynasty. "Qin" is pronounced "chin." Somewhat ironic to think that a name for a nation comes from one of the harshest and shortest-lived periods in its history, don't you think?
Han Dynasty
Once again, the Chinese fell under a new dynastic period divided into two. The Western Han Dynasty lasted from 206 BCE to 9 CE. As a true "Second-Generation Society," the Han Dynasty adopted the policies of the Qin Dynasty amending them to suit the new rulers. In taking over the empire, the new dynasty declared the Qin Dynasty as evil to explain the transference of the "Mandate of Heaven" from the Qin to the Han. That, however, did not prevent the Han Dynasty from continuing the Qin style of firm management over the different provinces.
The most notable portions of the Han Dynasty occurred under Emperor Wen and his grandson Emperor Wu. Emperor Wen's reign lasted from c. 180 to 157 BCE. Under his watch, examinations for entry into civil service positions went into effect. Prior to these examinations, civil service workers were nominated by others in government positions limiting the possible candidates to those with powerful friends. This action opened up government positions to whomever could pass the tests. Another characteristic of Wen's reign was the abolishment of many of the harsh laws and punishments remaining from the time of the Qin. Under Wen, China enjoyed an unusual era of prosperity and peace based on the influences of Confucianism and Daoism on the emperor.
Wen's grandson rose to power in c. 140 BCE. Emperor Wu's reign lasted fifty-three years, making it one of the longest reigns in Chinese history. Like his grandfather, Wu employed the principles of both Confucianism and Daoism. For day-to-day activities, Wu practiced the Daoist tenet of wuwei—choosing to do nothing and to allow the empire to function on its own. However, in preparation to allow the empire to function on its own, Wu established the Imperial University to train bureaucrats to run the government using Confucian principles. Under Emperor Wu, Confucian political ideals became the official doctrine of the Han Dynasty. Under Emperor Wu, the work of an "Axial Age thinker" became the policy of a "Second-Generation Society." As Emperor Wu devoted a great deal of time, resources and energy towards the expansion of his empire, Confucian ideals spread across vast spans of land. Compare the pictures below to see how much the Han Dynasty spread through East Asia.
As you can see from comparing the maps, under the Han Dynasty, China expanded into the Korean Peninsula, south into Vietnam, and west towards the Himalayas. As far as "Second-Generation Societies" go, the Han Dynasty was a huge success. The most serious threat that the Han Dynasty faced- at least militarily- came from the Xiongnu people in the north. The Xiongnu, whom were also called the Asiatic Huns, were nomads who really liked to ride south and take advantage of the disorder during the Warring States Period. During the Qin Dynasty, Shi Huangdi started linking previously built walls used to defend the Middle Kingdom from invaders from the north. The Han Dynasty continued this practice.
In 120 BCE, Emperor Wu started successfully defeating the Xiongnu and driving them back north. In the end, the southern tribes of the Xiongnu surrendered to the Chinese who continued their expansion west—this marked the beginning of a time period known as Pax Sinica, or "Chinese Peace" in Latin. Pax Sinica was an era known for the peace experienced domestically and the prosperity of its purses and people.
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